CHRISTIANSTED-CHRONOGRAPH. Chris'tiansted, frequently called BASSIN, the chief town of the Danish island of St. Croix, in the West Indies; pop. 5,700. Chris'tians, The, a sect of purely Amer. origin, from threefold sources, Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian, growing out of secessions from each of those bodies, which came together in 1810, and formed what was first called "The Independent Baptist Church," but later known as "The C." They discard creeds and adhere closely to biblical terminology in stating their views. This body grew quite rapidly until the great Millerite excitement, when it lost largely, and has never since recovered its former rate of progress. The first General Convention was held in 1819, and quadrennially since that time. In 1854 resolutions in regard to slavery were adopted which were offensive to the Southern members, who withdrew, and formed a Southern Convention with Rev. W. B. Wellons, D.D., President. The statistics are difficult to obtain, even by the leaders of the denomination. For 1895 they were approximately given as follows: Total churches or congregations, 1,480; total ministers, 1,485; members, Northern body, 95,250; Southern body, 15,000; total number, 110,250. The C. should be distinguished from the Disciples, who have also assumed the name of this older body, by which it had been recognized for over a half century. Chris'tiansund, a sea-port town of Norway, on the W. coast, on three small islands, 85 m. W.-S.-W. of Trondhjem; pop. 10,381. Chris'tian Un'ion Church'es, a denomination organized 1865, composed of members of all varieties of orthodox belief. Their creed is simple, covering the headship of Christ, sufficiency of the Bible, and right of local Church government. They have a membership of about 18,000, and are located chiefly in the older Western States. Chris'tie, (WILLIAM HENRY MAHONEY,) an Eng. astronomer, a graduate of Trinity Coll., Cambridge, and for a long time assistant in the Royal Observatory of Greenwich. On the retirement of AIRY (q. v.) as Astronomer Royal in 1881, C. was appointed his successor, a position which he still holds. He is best known for his spectroscopic work with the Greenwich Equatorial, especially that relating to the motion of stars in the line of sight. See MOTION IN LINE OF SIGHT. Christi'na, Queen of Sweden, only child of Gustavus Adolphus, b. Dec., 1626, and succeeded her father when six yrs. old. In 1644 she assumed the reins of power, and in 1650 was crowned. She had previously declared her cousin, Charles Gustavus, her successor. For four yrs. thereafter she ruled the kingdom with vigor, and was remarkable for her patronage of learned and scientific men. In 1654 she abdicated in favor of her cousin. Leaving Sweden, she proceeded to Brussels, where she embraced the R. C. religion. Confirmed by Pope Alexander VII., she adopted the surname of Alessandra. In 1666 she aspired to the crown of Poland. The remainder of her life was spent at Rome in artistic pursuits; d. 1689. Christina, Maria, Queen Regent of Spain during the minority of her son, (Alfonso XIII., b. 1886,) was b. 1858, and was a daughter of Earl Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria. She married Alfonso XII. of Spain in 1885. Chris'tison, (SIR ROBERT, D.C.L.,) a British physician, b. 1797, d. 1882, was twice Pres. of the Royal Coll. of Physicians; in 1871 he was created a baronet, and in 1877 retired from public work. Christ'lieb, (THEODOR, D.D.,) a Ger. theologian, b. 1833; he was a delegate to the Evangelical Alliance in New York, 1873; Prof. of Theology in Bonn University, and an earnest opponent of modern skepticism; d. 1889. Christ'mas, the day on which the nativity of the Saviour is observed. The institution of this festival is attributed by the spurious Decretals to Telesphorus, who flourished in the reign of Antoninus Pius, (138-161 A.D.,) but the first certain traces of it are found about the time of the Emperor Commodus, (180-192 A.D.) In the reign of Diocletian, (284-305 A.D.,) while that ruler was keeping court at Nicomedia, he learned that a multitude of Christians were assembled in the city to celebrate the birthday of Jesus, and having ordered the church doors to be closed he set fire to the building, and the worshipers perished in the flames. It does not appear, however, that there was any uniformity in the period of observing the nativity among the early Churches; some held the festival in the month of May or April, others in Jan. is, nevertheless, almost certain that the 25th of Dec. cannot be the nativity of the Saviour, for it is then the height of the rainy season in Judea, and shepherds could hardly be watching their flocks by night in the plains. It 587 Christ'mas-box, a small money-gift to persons in an inferior condition on the day after Christmas, which is hence popularly called Boxing-day. The term, and also the custom, are essentially English, though the making of presents at this season and at the new yr. is of great antiquity. Christ'mas Car'ols. The practice of singing carols, or, at all events, sacred music, in celebration of the nativity of Christ, as early as the 2d c., is considered as proved by the circumstance that a large sarcophagus belonging to that period has sculptured upon it a representation of a Christian family joining in choral praise for this purpose. Christology, in theological phrase, is the doctrine of the Person of Christ. Chris'tophe, (HENRI,) King of Hayti, b. 1767, was at one period a slave and tavern-cook in Cape Town, St. Domingo. He left a code of laws, which he called the "Code Henri," in imitation of the Code Napoleon; d. by his own hand Oct. 8, 1820. Chris'topher, Saint, a saint of the R. C. and Greek Churches, who suffered martyrdom about the middle of the 3d c. Chris'topher, Saint, or, popularly, SAINT KITTS, an island near the N.-E. bend of the great arch of the Antilles, containing about 44,000 acres and 28,169 inhabitants. It belongs to Great Britain. Christopoulos, (ATHANASIUS,) a modern Greek poet, b. 1772, d. 1847. Christ's College, Cambridge, Eng., was originally founded by Henry VI., under the name of "God's House." In 1505 Lady Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Derby, changed its name to C. C. Among the illustrious men connected with this college may be noted Bishop Latimer, John Milton, and Ralph Cudworth, author of the Intellectual System. Chro'mate of Lead, a native compound of chromic acid and lead, extensively used by painters. Chromat'ic, in Mus., is a term applied to a series of notes at the distance of a semitone from each other. Such a series is produced by dividing the whole tones of the diatonic scale into semitones, so that with the two diatonic semitones already in the natural scale the octave is divided into 12 semitones. Chromat'ics is that part of the science of optics which explains the properties of the colors of light and of natural bodies. It is now settled that white light is not homoge neous, but consists of rays of different colors, endued with different degrees of refrangibility, and that the different colors of bodies arise from their reflecting this or that kind of rays most copiously. According to this, a body that appears red reflects red rays in greater abundance than the others; and one that appears black reflects none of the rays-in other words, absorbs all the light that falls upon it. Chro'mic Ac'id, trioxide of chromium and water, which forms several compounds used as dyes. Chro'mic Iron, or Chro'mite, ore of chromium; found in Scotland, France, and U. S.; sometimes crystallized, but commonly massive. Chro'mium, a metal, so called from the many-colored compounds it produces. Discovered by Vauquelin 1797. Chro'mo-lith'ograph, a print executed in oil-colors. In recent yrs. such have attained a high standard of artistic excellence. Chromosphere. See SUN'S CHROMOSPHERE. Chronicle, a history in which events are treated in the order of time. A C. is understood to differ from annals in being more connected and full, the latter merely recording individual occurrences under the successive yrs. or other dates. Chronicles, two books of the O. T. condensing sacred history from the creation to the Babylonian captivity, composed at the time of Nehemiah, author unknown. Chron ́ogram, or Chronograph, a whimsical device of the later Romans, by which a date is given by selecting certain letters among those which form an inscription, and printing them larger than the others. The principle will be understood from the following C., made from the name of George Villiers, first Duke of Buckingham: GEORGIVS. DVX. BVCKINGAMIÆ. The date MDCXVVVIII (1628) is that of the yr. in which the duke was murdered by Felton at Portsmouth. Chronograph, (Gr. time-writer,") an instrument for recording graphically the beats of a clock or chronometer at the same time with the record of any observations which 588 CHRONOLOGY-CHUKIANG. it is desired to time accurately, such as the transits of a star over the wires of a transit-instrument, the occultation of a star by the moon's limb, or any other observed phenomenon. The form in which it is usually employed, that of a revolving barrel covered with a sheet of paper on which a pen is marking the breaks made in an electric circuit by a clock or chronometer, is an Amer. invention, and it has completely revolutionized the astronomical methods of observing transits, being now used all over the world to the exclusion of the eye-and-ear method in vogue before. The usual method of recording any observations is to tap a key which is held in the hand or conveniently supported within reach of it, this making breaks in the electric circuit similar to those made by the time-piece; but a great desideratum in astronomical work to-day is the invention of some method by which the transits of a star over the wires of a transit-instrument may be made to break this circuit automatically, and thus exclude the observer entirely from any participation in the work except the pointing of the telescope, and thus get rid of his PERSONAL EQUATION, (q. v.) Chronology is the science of the division of time. It has two main branches-Mathematical C. and Historical C. Mathematical C. is engaged with such of the units for the measurement of time as begin and end with the period of complete evolution of recurring celestial phenomena. Historical time uses these units, among others, to measure the distance in point of time between events, and to fix their dates. See CALENDAR and DATE. Chronom'eter (lit. "time-measurer") is the name given principally to such time-keepers as are used for determining the longitude at sea. The mechanism is essentially the same as that of a common watch, but they are hung on gimbals in a box so as to allow them always to remain in a horizontal position, no matter how much the vessel may roll or pitch. See WATCH and BALANCE-WHEEL. Chronometer, Break-circuit. See BREAK-CIRCUIT CHRONOMETER. Chron'oscope, an instrument contrived by Sir Charles Wheatstone to measure the duration of certain short-lived luminous phenomena, such as the electric spark. Chru'dim, a beautiful town of Bohemia, 62 m. S.-E. of Prague, and a very important horse-market; pop. 11,218. Chrys'alis, or Chrys'alid, a name originally Greek, and belonging to those pupe of butterflies which are adorned with golden spots, but extended to the pupa of lepidopterous insects generally, and even of other orders of insects. Before the caterpillar undergoes Worm. Chrysochlor'is Capen'sis, one of the family of moles. It is peculiar to South Africa, and is remarkable as the only one of the mammalia that exhibits the splendid metallic reflections so frequently seen in some other classes of animals. Chrysochloris Capensis. Chrysocol'la, or Cop'per-green, (Gr. "goldglue,") an ore of copper, found in Cornwall, Eng., and in many parts of the world, but particularly in Wis. and Mo., where it is so abundant as to be worked for copper. Chrys'olite, (Gr. "golden-stone,") a mineral composed of silica, magnesia, and protoxide of iron; of a fine green color, with vitreous luster; transparent, and having double refraction; in hardness about equal to quartz, and with conchoidal fracture. C. is used by jewelers as an ornamental stone, but is not highly valued. Chrysolo'ras, (MANUEL,) a learned Greek of Constantinople, b. probably about the yr. 1355. He is regarded as the first who transplanted Greek literature into Italy; d. 1415. Chrys'oprase is a variety of chalcedony. It is of a fine apple-green color in choice specimens, but inferior ones exhibit other shades of green, and it is sometimes spotted with yellowish-brown. Chrys'ostom, (JOHN,) (Gr. Chrysostomus, "Goldenmouthed," so named from the splendor of his eloquence,) b. at Antioch in 347 A.D. He studied oratory under Libanius, a heathen rhetorician, and, after devoting some time to the study of philosophy, retired to a solitary place in Syria, and there read the Holy Scriptures. At Antioch he was ordained deacon by Bishop Meletius, in 381, and presbyter by Bishop Flavianus, in 386. In 397 he was elevated to the episcopate of Constantinople. His faithful discharge of his duties excited the enmity of the patriarch Theophilus and of the Empress Eudoxia, who succeeded in deposing and banishing him from the capital. He went to Nicæa, in Bithynia, but was from thence removed to the little town of Cucusus, in the desert parts of the Taurus Mountains. He labored for the conversion of the Persians and Goths in the neighborhood, and wrote the seventeen letters to Olympias, to whom he also addressed a treatise on the proposition," None can hurt the man who will not hurt himself." The emperor, enraged by the general sympathy shown to C. by all true Christians, gave orders that he should be more remotely banished to a desolate tract on the Euxine. Accordingly, the old man was made to travel on foot, and with his bare head exposed to a burn in Pontus, 407 A.D. its transformation into this state, it often Chrysalis of Silk-ing sun. This cruelty proved fatal, and he d. at Comanum, spins for itself a silken cocoon, with which earth and other foreign substances are sometimes mixed, so as to increase its size, and within which the C. is concealed. Chrysanthemum, a genus of plants of the natural order Composite, sub-order Corymbiferæ. The species of this genus are annuals, perennials, or shrubby, and all have leafy stems. They are natives chiefly of the temperate parts of the Old World. Chryselephan'tine, (Gr. chrysos, "gold," and elephas, "ivory,") the art of making images of gold and ivory, was extensively practiced among the Greeks. Winckelmann has calculated that about 100 statues of this kind are mentioned by the ancients. Chrysip'pus, an eminent stoic philosopher, b. about 280 B.C. at Soli, in Cilicia. He had the reputation of being the keenest disputant of his age, and was happily described as "the knife for academic knots." He fl. about 207 B.C. Chry'sis, a Linnæan genus of hymenopterous insects, allied to the Ichneumonidae, and forming a connecting link between them and bees, wasps, etc. They sometimes receive the English names of golden-tailed and ruby-tailed flies. Chrysler's Field, on the Canada side of the St. Lawrence, below Ogdensburg, was a place of conflict on Nov. 14, 1813, between 1,600 Americans under Gen. Boyd, and 1,500 British troops under Col. Morrison. The Americans lost 102 killed and 236 wounded. Chrysobalana'ceæ, or Chrysobala'neæ, according to some botanists a distinct natural order of plants; according to others a sub-order of Rosaceae. About 50 species are known. The fruit of many is eatable, as the cocoa plums of the West Indies. Chrysober'yl, a gem almost as hard as sapphire. It is of a green color, inclining to yellow, semi-transparent or almost transparent, and has double refraction. Chrys'otype, (Gr. chrysos, "gold," typos, "impression,") a photographic process invented by Sir John Herschel, and depending for its success on the reduction of a persalt of iron to the state of protosalt by the action of light, and the subsequent precipitation of metallic gold upon this protosalt of iron. Chub, (Lemotibus corporalis,) a fish of the family Cypri nide, allied to the roach, dace, bleak, minnow, etc. Chubb, (THOMAS,) an Eng. rationalist, who wrote on religious questions during the first half of the last c.; b. at East Harnam, Wiltshire, 1679, d. 1746. Chub. Chuck, a contrivance fixed to the mandrel of a lathe for holding the material to be turned. Chuck-Will's-Wid'ow, (Antrostomus Carolinensis,) a bird of the goatsucker family, (Caprimulgida,) a native of the southern parts of the U. S. It has received its singular name from its note, which resembles these syllables articulated with great distinctness. Chucui'to, or Chuqui'to, a town of Bolivia, S. Am.; pop. about 5,000. In the prov. of the same name, of which it is the cap., there are mines of silver and gold, and some interesting ancient ruins of a remote civilization. Chuck-wheel. Chu'kiang, or Can'ton River, the "Pearl River" of the Chinese, is the lower part of the Pekiang, and has a CHUMBUL-CHURCH. NT 589 ST navigable channel of about 300 m. Opposite Canton it is about formance of liturgical services in which the people were to m. w., and is crowded with shipping up to 1,000 tons' bur- participate, and for the delivery of those public addresses den; larger vessels must tie up at Whampoa, 15 m. below. which from the beginning were employed as a means of About 40 m. below Canton it is called "Boca Tigris." Christian teaching and exhortation. Chumbul', a river rising in the Vindhyan Mountains, To such purposes the pretor's courtwhich form the limit of the basin of the Ganges; 1. 570 m. room, with its surroundings, were Chu'nam, a name used in India for a fine kind of quick- readily adapted, by the few simple lime made from calcined shells or from very pure limestone, alterations described in the articles and used for chewing with betel, and for plaster. Extensive above referred to. But the basilica, beds of fossil shells employed for this purpose occur in the as thus altered, was a mere utilitarian S. of India, particularly in low, marshy situations near the structure. It served the purposes of sea-coast. The shells used are in the first place very care- Christian worship, but there was nothfully cleaned; they are then calcined in kilns with wood ing in its form which responded to charcoal. When chunam is to be used for plaster it is mixed the feelings of Christian worshipers with fine river sand and thoroughly beaten up with water. A or tended to awaken Christian sentilittle jaggery (coarse sugar) is also added. When very beauti-ments. Now, the cross (q. v.) had ful work is desired, three coats of chunam are given to the wall, and the result is a plaster almost equal to marble in its polish and beauty. The third coat is applied in the form of a very fine paste, consisting of four parts of lime and one of fine white sand, beaten up with whites of eggs, sour milk, and ghee, (butter.) After it has been rubbed on with a wooden rubber the surface is washed with a cream of pure lime, and is rubbed with a polished piece of quartz or rock crystal. During this process the wall is sprinkled with powder of potstone, and the rubbing is continued until the wall is quite dry, every trace of moisture being finally removed by a cloth. C. is an important article of trade in India. Chunargarh', or Chunar', a fortified town on the Ganges, 16 m. S.-W. of Benares, in the North-west Provinces. The fortress, which occupies the summit of a sand-stone rock, contains the commandant's house, the hospital, the prison, and an ancient palace, with a deeply excavated well of not very good water. The river in front is navigable at all seasons for vessels of from 50 to 60 tons; pop. of C. somewhat over 10,000. Chupat'tee, or Chapati, a word in India signifying a thick, flat, baked disk of unleavened farinaceous paste; an unfermented cake, used as tokens by the disaffected previous to the Sepoy mutiny. Chu'pra, or Chuprah, a town of India, prov. of Behar, Bengal, on the N. bank of the Ganges, at the mouth of the Gogari, 35 m. N.-W. of Patna. It extends a m. along the river, here navigable only in the rainy season, and is but a few feet above its bank. It has several mosques, pagodas, and churches; most of the dwellings are of mud, with tiled roofs. There is some trade in saltpeter, sugar, and cotton, and a military station near; pop. 57,352. Chuquisa'ca, or Sucre, the capital of the republic of Bolivia, S. Am.; lat. 19° 20' S., and long. 65° 30' W. It is on a table-land about 9,000 ft. above the sea, and has a pleasant climate. The town is well built, has a cathedral of great magnifience, a university, a college of arts and sciences, and a mining school. C. was founded 1538 by Pedro Auzures, an officer of Pizarro, on the site of an Old Peruvian town called "Choque Chaka," or "Bridge of Gold," "the treasures of the Incas having passed through it on their way to Cuzco." At one time C. bore the name of La Plata, on account of the rich silver mines in its vicinity; pop. 19,001. C. gives name to a territory containing 220,000 whites, besides many native Indians. It has five silver mines in operation, and in it are magnificent ruins of unknown origin. The second name is derived from the general who, 1824, won, at Ayacucho, the last great battle for colonial independence. Chur, a town of Switzerland, cap. of the Grisons. It is of importance as standing on the great road to Italy, by the Splugen and Bernardin passes, and thus possessing a considerable transit trade; pop. 8,000. Church, a place of Christian worship. The earliest ecclesiastical structures of the Christians were copied or adapted, not from the heathen or Jewish temple, as might have been anticipated, but from that peculiar combination of a hall of justice and a market-place to which the name basilica was given by the ancients. (See APSE, BASILICA.) The reason of this selection is found, probably, not so much in the spirit of opposition which no doubt existed between Christians and heathens, as in the essentially different conceptions which they formed of the cnaracter and objects of public worship. The rites of heathendom were performed exclusively by the priest, the people remaining without the temple; and the temple itseif, which was lighted only from the door, or by the few lamps which burned around the image of the god, was regarded, not as an assembly-room for worshipers, but as the abode of the deity. The dark, mysterious character which thus belonged to it rendered it equally unsuitable for the per N Church. been used by Christians from a very Ground-plan of the Church of St. George, Thessalonica, adapted from a Basilica. ing were its internal arrangements, and the various adjuncts which in cathedrals and other of the larger churches frequently sprang up around it. Over the point at which the arms or transepts intersect the body of the cross a central tower or spire is very frequently erected. From this central tower, or, if the tower or towers are situated elsewhere, from this central point, the portion of the building projecting westward to Church of St. Demetrius, Thessalonica, Fifth Century. Cross Section. where the Galilee or entrance chapel, or, in other instances, the great entrance-door, is situated is called the nave, (from navis, a ship,) while the portion eastward to where the altar, or high-altar, if there be several altars, is placed is called the have usually a chapter-house attached, of various forms, usually octagonal, and often one of the richest and most beautiful portions of the whole edifice. On the Continent chapter-houses are not so common, the CHAPTER (q. v.) being usually held in the cathedral itself, or in one of the chapels attached to it. CLOISTERS (q. v.) also are frequent, and not unusually the sides of those furthest removed from the C., or chapter-house, are inclosed by other buildings connected with the establishment, such as a library, and places of residence for some of the officials of the cathedral. It is here that, in R. C. Cs., the hall, dormitories, and kitchens for the monks are commonly placed. Beneath the C. there is frequently a CRYPT, (q. v.) In some cathedral Cs. the crypt is in reality a second underground C. of great size and beauty. The BAPTISTERY (q. v.) is another adjunct to the C., though frequently forming a building altogether detached. The position of the nave, choir or chancel, aisles, and transepts are nearly invariable, but the other portions vary, and are scarcely alike in two Cs. Cs. are of five classes-metropolitan, cathedral, collegiate, conventual, and parish Cs.-and of these the first are, generally speaking, the most, and the last the least, elaborate. In ordinary language, any building set apart for religious ordinances is called a C., though when of a minor kind it is more usually designated a chapel. After Cross Section of Church of San Pietro in Vaticano, Rome, showing Naves, Rafter-work, Mosaic Decorations, etc. Cs. in a superior style, emulative of the older styles of archi- choir. In the larger and more complete Cs. the nave, fre- | a long period of neglect and poverty of taste, the building of quently also the choir, is divided longitudinally by two rows of pillars into three portions, the portion at each side being generally somewhat narrower and less lofty than that in the center. These side portions are called the aisles of the nave, or of the choir, as the case may be. In some churches the aisles are continued along the transepts, thus running round the whole C.; in others there are double aisles to the nave, or to both nave and choir, or even to nave, choir, and transept. Behind, or to the E. of the choir, is situated the Lady's Chapel, or Chapel of the Virgin, with sometimes a number of altars; and it is not unusual for side chapels to be placed at different points along the aisles. These usually contain the tombs of the founder, and of other benefactors to, or dignitaries connected with, the C. The extent to which these adjuncts exist depends on the size and importance of the C., and they are scarcely ever alike in two Cs., either in number, form, or position. Vestries for the use of the priests and choristers are generally found in connection with the choir. Along the sides of the choir are arranged richly ornamented seats or stalls, usually of carved oak, surmounted with tracery, arches, and pinnacles; and among these seats, in the case of a bishop's C., the highest and most conspicuous is the so-called cathe- | are to be found. See CATHEDRAL, DOME, GOTHIC ARCHITECT, dra, or seat for the bishop, from which the cathedral takes URE, BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE, etc. Form of an Early Basilica, a Bronze Lamp found in Africa. its name. The larger English cathedral and abbey-Cs. Church. See CHRISTIAN CHURCH. his "View of Niagara Falls," "Sunrise on Mount Desert Isl- | Wright. He was in the Legislature 1842, county attorney and," and other pictures. Church, (JOHN ADAMS, M.E.,) associate editor of The New York Journal of Mining and Engineering, and Prof. of Mining and Metallurgy in the School of Mines; b. 1844. 1846-47, lieutenant-governor 1851-55, and State comptroller 1858-59. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the last office in 1857 and 1863, and for Congress in 1862; member of the N. Y. Constitutional Convention 1869, and chairman of its |