actual knowledge, and how he stood morally. To answer these three questions, as Sir John Lubbock does, by the vague formula that he was in a state of utter barbarism, is highly unsatisfactory. He might be ignorant of the mechanical arts, yet not ignorant of duty or of God. His sense of right and wrong might be rudimentary, yet we could not conclude that he was merely a developed beast. There remain after all a mind and conscience, an ability to acquire and transmit knowledge, as distinctive attributes of man. And even with reference to actual acquirements, the assumption that the barbarism detected in any age is a sample of man's primitive condition is wholly unsupported by evidence. Might not barbarism have been the result of a subsequent corruption? And in fact do not his own admissions with reference to cannibalism allow the existence of elements of degeneracy in human nature sufficient to account for other customs of savagery? On the other hand, the argument of Whately that mere savages "never did and never could raise themselves, unaided, into a higher condition," is an assertion difficult to prove, especially with reference to the mechanical arts, of which alone, or principally, he makes it. There is no need however of our having recourse to this or any kindred argument. It is enough to show, as can be easily done, that as a fact there are downward tendencies always at work in human nature, and sufficient to account for any depth of barbarism in which portions of the race have been at any time found. Once let this be granted, as it ought to be, upon the evidence adduced in abundance by such men as M. Müller, and there is at once an end of Sir John Lubbock's notion that primeval man must have been born in a state of "utter barbarism."

2. The public has not yet got wearied of hearing about the late Abyssinian expedition. Mr. Markham's book (A History of the Abyssinian Expedition. By Clement R. Markham, F.S.A. Macmillans. 1869.), rich beyond all others in detail relating to meteorology and other kindred subjects, would stand a fair comparison with any other on more general grounds. It gives a very lucid account of Abyssinian history up to the present time, the most striking feature of which, in relation to our own late efforts, is the narrative in the first chapter concerning the Portuguese Expedition under Cristoforo da Gama in the middle of the sixteenth century. It must be confessed that Cristoforo did far more, considering his resources and the opposition with which he met, than Sir R. Napier ever thought of attempting. “The work cut out,” says Mr. Markham, "for the handful of brave men from the little hero nation, represents an achievement which no sane commander in these days would think of attempting. This is the age for crushing a mosquito with a steam-hammer, and boiling an egg with a ten-horse power engine" (p. 20). As we proceed with the book, the thought suggested by these words recurs frequently. Except for the fact that we were bound to release the prisoners, for whose detention by

Theodore the blunderings of our Foreign Office were mainly responsible, the results of the expedition are thus summed up in the words of Mr. Markham :--"The experience acquired during active service by many young officers is a clear gain to this country, and in traversing a very interesting and remarkable region, some additional knowledge has been collected by those who were specially sent out for the purpose, in several branches of science" (p. 389). Rather a small result for so many millions! As to fighting, or even marching through an enemy's country, there was nothing worth speaking of. The march was a promenade over very difficult ground, with assistance and abundant supplies from the natives of the country-a promenade which must often have come to an unfortunate end if there had been any enemy to watch or hinder it. At the time of the expedition, Theodore was surrounded by enemies, and he practically sacrificed his one remaining chance by devastating the single province that was still faithful to him. No honour can possibly accrue to English arms from an engagement such as that at Arogyè, where the Snider rifle reduced enemies at no time formidable to the condition of children fighting with bows and arrows against fire-arms; and few things in history are more ludicrous than the bombardment of Magdala with all the artillery at Sir Robert Napier's disposal, when "it contained about three thousand women, children, and prisoners, and at the gate were the king himself and a few followers" (p. 345). We have no doubt of the excellence of the artillery or of the bravery of our soldiers, but on the occasion of what is called the "storming of Magdala," they might almost have been as easy about danger to themselves as if they had been under review in Hyde Park.

Theodore was, no doubt, a very extraordinary man, and he had acquired an immense prestige by his bravery in war. But his cruelty and rapacity had made him intolerable to his countrymen, whom, if he had been prudent and moderate in the use of his ascendancy, he might perhaps have permanently united under his dynasty, and whom he might at the same time have brought into communication with the civilised nations of Europe. He seems never to have fully understood that England was forced to be in earnest in her demand for the liberation of the captives at the point of the sword; and, what is more important still, the offence was originally given by us, by disappointing him in sending no answer to his letter to the Queen, and at the same time ordering our Consul to withdraw to the sea-coast. This was, as it seems, the result of a direct charge of policy on the part of our Government, which dates from the accession of Lord Russell to the Foreign Office. The omission has been costly both to ourselves and to Abyssinia, which has been once more left to confusion. As matters became more complicated, Theodore seems to have thought that he could enforce the sending to him of European artisans, by retaining the prisoners he had seized. And, at the end of all, though there was no intention to deceive him, the King seems

certainly to have been deceived as to the acceptance of the cattle which he sent to Sir Robert Napier after the battle at Arogyè—which acceptance, as he believed it to have been made, was equal at least to an assurance of peace.

The whole story is certainly most curious, and, if it illustrates British energy and perseverance, it must also be allowed to exemplify the enormous and ruinous blunders which our statesmen occasionally commit. To those who have read Lady Herbert's account of the persecution of Monsignor de Jacobis and the Abyssinian Catholics by Theodore, it will have a striking significance. Theodore's marvellous fall, the sort of blind insanity of self-ruin which marked the end of his career, and the extraordinary chain of circumstances which made us send an expedition of immense costliness from India "to plant the banner of St. George on the mountains of Rasselas," to use Mr. Disraeli's characteristic phraseology, but in reality to chastise a single man-all these things become very intelligible when read in the light of historical experience as to the dealings of Providence with great persecutors of the Church.

3. Mr. Mill's rather feminine attack upon man as a tyrannical usurper of power over woman (The Subjection of Women. By John Stuart Mill) is so little likely to have any practical influence, that it is not necessary to be at any great pains to refute him. We are on the whole rather glad that he has given to the world in detail the grounds of his levelling views. The weakness of his argument upon a subject which most educated persons are competent to decide upon, may possibly generate a suspicion that in other and higher spheres of thought he may not be the safest of guides. Indeed, the process he pursues bears a very close resemblance to the method he has adopted in his psychological speculations. By far the greater part of the phenomena which are observable in the present relations of the sexes are compatible with the hypothesis that the brute force of man has, without any warrant from the natural constitution of things, established his dominion over woman. The arguments often used on the other side are not convincing. Therefore this hypothesis is the only one admissible. This is the basis of his theory. So in psychology his line is ever the same. Sensation and association of ideas, which are the products of sensation, suffice to account for many of the phenomena of mind, and possibly may be found some day to account for all. Many of the arguments employed by the intuitional school are futile: therefore sensation and association are the sole origin of our mental processes. In either case the transition from hypothesis to assertion is made before exhaustive verification has been achieved, and in the face of opponents the foundation of whose doctrines has not been successfully undermined. There may be, and is, much ingenuity displayed in making individual facts square with his hypothesis. There are many acute observations, much incidental information, many wise reflections occurring throughout his pages, but his foundation always

remains unstable so long as it is not taken out of the range of pure hypothesis.

It is noticeable also that Mr. Mill treats the Biblical arguments in favour of the present subjection of women with conspicuous unfairness. With an air of self-complacent triumph he meets the appeal to St. Paul's command, "Wives obey you husbands," with a retort from the same writer's injunction, "Slaves obey your masters," and adds that St. Paul legislated for the existing circumstances without troubling himself about their legitimacy. But he must be well aware that none but the shallowest of mankind would dream of resting his approbation of feminine subjection upon this single text. He appeals to the principle of social justice as set forth by Christianity in favour of absolute equality between the sexes; but can he be ignorant of the distinction between legal and commutative justice, and that the Biblical idea of the former, whether Christian or Jewish, is in no way at variance with natural inequalities?

He is loud again against the abuses to which the power of husband over the wife has undoubtedly been put. But why does he not attempt to show that they flow necessarily and directly from the fact of his being invested with that power? And why is he silent as to a great number of the difficulties which would infallibly arise in society were his own theory ever to be realized ?

It would really seem as if Mr. Mill could not abide any theory or state of things which has met with general acceptance with mankind. Whatever is, is wrong, appears to be his great practical principlea principle more dangerous and subversive and not less foolish than the opposite extreme, whatever is, is right. He has been very vehement before now in attacking a common impression amongst men, that theorisers are untrustworthy guides in practical matters. It would have been well had his own example been as little confirmatory of the vulgar error, if error indeed it be when not pressed too far, and not made an absolute rule, as his exposure of the fallacy in that instance was successful.

4. Before the Catholics of Ireland were startled by the information that the Church of St. Patrick was identical with the Protestant Establishment, the learned Bishop of St. Gall had by anticipation met the fantastic assertions of a certain Anglican prelate by an elaborate work on the Ancient Irish Church. This book belongs to the class of monograph, for which the German mind seems so well fitted. While intended as an introduction to the history of the author's own diocese, it is also a valuable and exhaustive treatise on the early Church in the Isle of Saints and Scholars. The close connection between Ireland and Gaul, which Dr. Greith shows to have existed from the com

Geschichte der altrischer Kirche, und ihrer Verbindung mit Rom, Gallien und Alemannien: von Carl Johann Greith, Bischof von St. Gallen. Freiburg im Breisgan. Herder. 1867.

mencement of the fifth century, is fatal to the ingenious theory above mentioned.

Though much of what Dr. Greith here treats has become familiar to us through the Monks of the West, the fuller accounts and the genial tone of this volume will well repay a perusal. The style is a pure and simple one, at once free from the long-winded sentences and the unnatural Gallicisms which some German writers now-a-days affect. In six books, each of which contains three or four chapters, we have a delightful narrative-dotted over with entertaining incident, and coloured by its reflection of the learned and noble mind of the venerable author-of the relations which in the early centuries existed between Ireland and Gaul. The first book, after a general survey of the great migrations of the barbarians, gives a pleasing account of the schools and scholars of Lerins. From St. Honoratus to St. Germanus of Auxerre the purity of Catholic teaching and discipline descended unstained. St. Patrick was a disciple of St. Germanus, and the second book gives us the early life and the Apostolical career of the great Irish Saint. The splendid array of Erin's Saints, trained by St. Patrick's disciples and filled with his spirit, next pass under review. It is impossible even to mention all their names. There now arose those glorious men who have been called “ the twelve Apostles of Ireland," among whom were St. Columba of Iona, St. Columbanus and St. Comgall. The lives of these heroes, their monastic institutions, their labours for the Church and for science, are done justice to. It is impossible to read these glowing pages without an intimate feeling of the great share which Ireland had in softening down the harshness of the barbarian character of our forefathers; still stronger appears the justness of the pride Ireland feels in having reared such giant sons as the old Apostles and Monks, the children of St. Patrick. In the fifth book we have a vivid picture of the labours of St. Gall, whose name is borne by the see of the author. In order to give a just appreciation of the nature of the work portioned out for the Saint, Dr. Greith gives an excellent chapter on the heathenism of Germany, which will enable the reader to understand the raw material which had to be remoulded and cast into the Christian type. The sixth book, which is a scathing thunderbolt to the "Protestant Ireland" view, discusses at length the doctrinal teaching of the Irish Church, in the course of which a whole chapter is devoted to the Liber Dogmatum. The last chapter of the work proves beyond dispute the fact that Ireland gave a full and lasting recognition to the principle of the Primacy of the See of Rome.

5. Mr. Baddeley is one of a large number of minor poets of the day, whose works are generally welcome on account of the high average of excellence which they maintain. This present publication (Cassandra and other Poems: Bell and Daldy) will add to his reputation. The chief poem consists of a series of dramatic scenes from the life of Cassandra, very well delineated, but drawing perhaps their