and exploit all interstate and international telegraph, radiocommunication, radio broadcasting, and telephone services directly or through concessions.

The Federal Government will also control aerial navigation and those rail lines which link maritime ports with national borders or cross state lines. It will organize permanent defenses against drought, rural diseases, and floods, grant amnesty, legislate on civil, commercial, criminal, electoral, aeronautical, and labor matters, production and consumption, aims and bases of national education, public registries, and commercial organizations, military police, civil and military requisitions (during time of war), coastwise trade and ports, interstate commerce, foreign trade, credit institutions, exchange and transfer of valuables outside the country, subsoil riches, mineral deposits, metallurgy, waterways, waterpower, electric energy, flora and fauna, fisheries, the monetary system, naturalization, the entry, extradition, and deportation of foreigners, immigration and emigration, requirements for exercise of technical, scientific, and liberal professions, use of national symbols, and the incorporation of forests. into the national preserves.

Federal taxation

The Constitution provides that the Federal Government may levy taxes on income, on imports from abroad, on production, commerce, distribution and consumption, and on business transactions.

Exemption from taxes is extended to underprivileged persons with restricted economic capacities and applies to their consumption of articles of minimum necessity such as housing, clothing, food, and medical treatment.

The general provisions at the end of the Constitution state the general principle that all taxes should be levied according

to ability to pay and specify that for the next 20 years three percent of all federal revenues should be spent to develop the Amazon area. The states, territories, and municipalities are required to make similar donations of their revenues for the same purpose, turning the funds over to the Federal Government.

A unique provision of the Constitution is that no taxes shall be levied on authors' rights, professors, or journalists.

States' rights

The new Constitution restores considerable autonomy to the states of the union. They may now unite, subdivide, or dismember themselves or form new states. Territories may become states through special legislation, may be divided into new territories or be restored to states from which they were separated. The states may now use their traditional flags, seals, and other symbols of autonomy and have the right to exercise all powers not specifically forbidden in the Constitution.

State tax powers are extensive. They may not levy taxes on city real estate but they may tax all other pieces of land more than 20 hectares (49.4 acres) in size, inheritances, property transfers, and sales and consignments made by businessmen and producers including industrialists. They may tax up to five percent ad valorem exports to foreign countries and the Federal Senate may authorize an increase to ten percent for a stated period of time at the state's request.

Federal intervention

The President may, in an emergency, intervene in states to protect national integrity, repel foreign invasion, prevent interstate conflicts, suppress civil war, guarantee free exercise of state power, assure the carrying out of court decisions, and prevent the re-election of governors

and mayors to consecutive terms. Presidential intervention will be through a Federal Interventor.

Federal District

The President of the Republic is empowered to appoint and remove Prefects of the Federal District (city of Rio de Janeiro) who are its executive officers and are assisted in governing the district by a Federal District Council. Tax powers similar to those enjoyed by the states are granted to the District.

Municipalities

Article 28 guarantees the autonomy of municipalities and provides that prefects shall be elected, except in state capitals or in municipalities of exceptional economic importance to state or federal governments, where they can be named by state governors. In municipalities designated by the National Security Council as important bases they must be so appointed. The tax powers of municipalities extend to real estate, licensed businesses, industries industries and professions, amusements, and transactions within their jurisdiction and competence.

Legislative powers

The Constitution provides that the legislative powers of the Federal Senate and Chamber of Deputies may not be delegated to any other branch of the government and that congressional elections must be held simultaneously in all parts of the country. In order to qualify for election to the Senate or the Chamber one must be a Brazilian citizen in the full exercise of political rights. For the Chamber the prospective candidate must be at least twenty-one and for the Senate he must be at least thirty-five years of age. Congress convenes March 15 and sits until December 15 but special sessions

may be called by the President or by one-third of the members of one house. Majority rule is to prevail in legislation. and legislators are declared immune from punishment in discharge of their duties, in their opinions, pronouncements and votes. This immunity extends to arrest except for flagrant crime. Deputies and Senators get the same pay and both are forbidden to enter into contract with businesses or commercial enterprises or hold other public offices. They may, however, undertake special missions with the permission of their respective chambers, and legislators who become Ministers of State, Federal Interventors or Secretaries of State (in the states) do not lose their seats. The life of a Congress is four years.

Chamber of Deputies

Members of this body are elected by the proportional representation system from states, territories, and the Federal District in a manner to be fixed by law but not to exceed one deputy for every 150,000 population up to twenty deputies; over this number it requires 250,000 population to elect one deputy. Each territory must be represented by at least one deputy and each state and the Federal District by at least seven. To the Chamber is allotted the duty of inaugurating impeachment proceedings against the President and Cabinet. Lists of alternates to serve as substitutes are elected at the same time as the deputies.

Senate

Each state and the Federal District have three senators, serving eight years with one-third of the Senate renewed after the first four years and two-thirds renewed after eight. Alternates are elected as in the cases of the deputies. The Vice President of the Republic serves as President of

the Senate. The upper house judges in impeachment proceedings and must register a two-thirds vote to convict; it approves high appointments by secret ballot, authorizes loans floated by states, Federal District, and municipalities, and suspends the execution of laws declared unconstitutional by the Federal Supreme Court.

Congressional powers

The Congress must vote budgets and taxes, control the public debt and armed forces, sanction treaties negotiated by the President, grant amnesties, approve state legislation on changing state territories, authorize presidential or vice presidential absences from Brazil, and fix salaries and allowances for the executive officers and congressmen.

Laws may originate with the President or with a member of Congress. All laws controlling military and financial affairs must be initiated in the Chamber. All discussion of presidential proposals of legislation should begin in the Chamber but laws must pass both houses and all modifications must go back to the original house for sanction of changes. The President must exercise total or partial veto, if he so desires, within ten days after receipt of new legislation; his silence means approval and his veto may be overriden by a two-thirds vote of the Congress in joint session. Vetoed legislation may be revived in the same session by an absolute majority vote of the Congress.

The Presidency

The presidential succession is as follows: President, Vice President, President of the Chamber of Deputies, Vice President of the Senate, President of the Federal Supreme Court.

The President and Vice President must be native Brazilians in full possession of their political rights and they must be at

least thirty-five years of age. These two officers must be elected simultaneously 120 days before presidential terms end. They hold office for five years and are not eligible for consecutive terms nor may any of their blood relatives be elected to the same office immediately.

The President sanctions, promulgates, and publishes laws and decrees, exercises veto powers, names ministers, the mayor of Rio de Janeiro (Prefeito), members of the National Economic Council and other high officials, maintains relations with foreign powers, negotiates treaties, declares war (with Congressional approval if Congress is in session, without it if Brazil is attacked), negotiates peace, exercises supreme command of the armed forces, proclaims a state of siege, decides federal interventions, grants permission to citizens to accept foreign governmental pensions, employment, or commissions, sends the budget to the Chamber of Deputies within the first two months of the legislative session, opens Congress with a message on the state of the union, and grants pardons. The President may be impeached for overstepping these powers.

The Cabinet

Ministers must be Brazilians at least 25 years of age. They must make annual reports on their departments to the President and report to the Congress at its request. They may be judged for malfeasance by the Federal Supreme Court.

Federal Judiciary

The Federal Judiciary consists of the Federal Supreme Court, the Federal Court of Appeals, and military, electoral, and labor tribunals.

The Supreme Court of 11 Ministers may increase its size on its own proposal in a measure which becomes law by the usual

processes. The Ministers are named by the President with Senate approval and must be Brazilians over thirty-five years of age, of judicial mind and good reputation. They may be tried for malfeasance by the Senate. The Supreme Court is empowered to try the President for common crimes and other high officials for crimes of responsibility or common crimes. The Supreme Court has jurisdiction over cases where states are in conflict with the Federal government and where there is a question of extradition requested by a foreign state. It may exercise habeas corpus rights, decide the constitutionality of federal or local laws and hear appeals on criminal cases.

The constitution goes into considerable detail on the subject of the Federal Court of Appeals and electoral tribunals before taking up the duties, rights, and privileges of labor courts. The labor tribunals include the Supreme Labor Court, Regional Labor Tribunals and Conciliation Boards. Powers of the last two are to be regulated by law to give them jurisdiction over local disputes. The labor tribunals as a whole will arbitrate disputes between employers and labor, except in accident cases, which must go before ordinary

courts.

Economic and social order

The Constitution pays particular attention to the future economic and social order of the Republic, stating that the economic order shall be organized to conform to the principles of social justice, conciliating free enterprise with appreciation for the value of human labor. It assures employment to all in order to make possible a decent life and assumes that work is a social obligation.

Specific provisions are that the Federal government may intervene in the economic sphere and take over any industry or

activity therein; property shall be used for social well-being; just distribution of property and goods shall assure equal opportunity for all, and no abuse of economic power will be tolerated.

The law will regulate banking, insurance, and capitalization. Mines and other subsoil riches as well as bodies of water are declared to be properties distinct from real estate used for industrial development. Industrial authorizations and concessions will be granted to Brazilians only, or to enterprises organized in the country, giving preference (in exploitation) to the owner of the land. Owners' rights over mines and mineral deposits shall be regulated by law according to the nature of the deposits. Usury will be punished by law. Coastwise trade is reserved for Brazilian vessels except in cases of urgent public necessity. The owners, commanders, and two-thirds of the crews of Brazilian boats must be Brazilian.

The law will aid the colonization of public lands, giving preference to nationals who live in underprivileged areas or who are unemployed.

No concession of public lands of more than 10,000 hectares (24,710 acres) shall be permitted without sanction of the Federal Senate.

Sunday, and shall receive paid annual vacations. Workers' health and safety on the job must be protected by employers. Employers must carry accident insurance on their employees.

Child labor is prohibited. The minimum working age for daytime work is fourteen and for night work, eighteen. Mothers shall be granted rest periods before and after giving birth without loss of position or salary.

Management is required to recognize labor grievance committees, syndicates or unions, and to provide health services, including preventive medicine, hospitalization and other social security aids.

The Federal Government shall give aid to the unemployed and provide other social security measures.

The right to strike is recognized and guaranteed.

Foreigners

Article 160 carries an important provision affecting foreigners. It provides that ownership and operation of journalistic enterprises, whether political or newsdispensing in character, and radio broadcasting facilities and corporations are forbidden to foreigners. Corporations are forbidden to own these enterprises also; the only exception made is for political parties.

Family, education, and culture

Provision is made for the Federal Government to lend special protection to the family. Marriage shall be civil and without fee but a religious ceremony shall be valid if civil requirements are also met. There is no provision for divorce.

Special aid shall be granted to mothers and children everywhere and protection of the government given to large families. Compulsory free elementary education shall be given in Portuguese and shall be

provided for all. Industrial and commercial enterprises must offer apprenticeship to their non-adult workers with adequate respect for the rights of the instructors. Religious instruction is permitted in accord with the student's belief.

Secondary teachers must be selected by competitive examination and they as well. as all other teachers shall enjoy academic freedom.

The Federal Government is obliged to spend not less than 10% and the states and Federal District not less than 20% of tax revenues for teaching purposes. It is the responsibility of the Federal Government to organize a federal teaching system in the territories. Each state and the Federal District may organize its own educational system and may expect financial assistance from the Federal Government to help maintain elementary schools.

Civil rights and guarantees

Tax distinctions and state support of any religion are outlawed. Churches are exempt from taxation, however, as are the properties of political parties, schools, charities, and public service institutions. Taxes may not be levied on paper destined for use in books, newspapers, or periodicals.

All persons born in Brazil of parents who are not in the service of a foreign government, and children of Brazilian mothers or fathers born abroad if the parent is in Brazilian government service or returns to live in Brazil, are considered Brazilians.

All foreigners must be naturalized except the Portuguese, who acquire Brazilian citizenship through one year's uninterrupted residence in Brazil provided they have good moral character and physical health.

Voters of both sexes must have reached