RIOW-RITORNELLO. in the summer, occurred the "Doctors' R.," when the mob, indignant at the exposure of the secrets of the dissecting room, attacked the hospital physicians. In May, 1849, occurred the Macready Rs.; on June 9, 1857, the City Hall R., caused by the resistance of Mayor Fernando Wood to the enforcement of the Metropolitan Police Act. On July 3 and 4 of the same yr. occurred the "Dead Rabbit R.," growing out of the same matter. In July, 1863, occurred the greatest R. ever known in New York, the Draft R., caused by the resistance of the Irish to the draft. Over 1,000 persons were killed. On July 12, 1871, occurred the so-called Orange R., caused by the determination of the Ancient Order of Hibernians that the Orange societies should not parade; over 100 persons were killed. The last great R. or tumult was in the summer of 1886, during the street-car strike, when an attempt was made to run a car through Grand Street. Abnost as strange as the coincidence in the time of these Rs.-they all occurred in warm weather-is the fact that we generally call them by wrong names. The Negroes did not begin the trouble in 1741, nor did the physicians in 1788. It was the friends of Forrest, not of Macready, who caused the Rs. in 1849, and the Orangemen had nothing to do with causing the Orange Rs. of 1871. Another great R. was the Haymarket or May R. in Chicago, May 4, 1886. See "Events" and "Trials" in APPENDIX. Riow', a Netherlands residency or government in the Eastern Archipelago; since Siak and dependencies were taken from it consists of the peninsula of Tandjong, Pinang, the LinggaRiow Archipelago, a part of the coast of Sumatra N. of Djambi, and the adjoining kingdom of Indragiri; also the Tambilan, Anambas, and Natuna Islands; area about 3,000 sq. m., pop. of the residency 75,386. Gold is found in Lingga, and tin was extensively wrought. Coal is also found in the Riow-Lingga Islands. The industries are manufacturing gambir, distilling arrack, weaving silks, ship-building, wood-cutting, tile and brick making, together with extensive fisheries. The original inhabitants are Malays. Ripa'rian Rights, pertaining to the rights of an owner of property on the banks of a river, and to the extent of land and water he may properly control. Ripley, (GEORGE, LL.D.,) an Amer. journalist and miscellaneous writer, b. in Greenfield, Mass., Oct. 3, 1802, d. in New York, July 4, 1880. He matriculated at Harvard University in 1819, and was graduated in the class of 1823 with the highest honors. For a yr. he was tutor in his alma mater, and in 1826 was also graduated from the Cambridge Divinity School. In 1827 he became pastor of the Purchase Street Unitarian Church, Boston, where he remained till 1831, when he started on an extended European tour. On his return to Am. he devoted himself entirely to literature, which had gradually become to him a more congenial pursuit than preaching. The interval spent abroad had been devoted largely to the study of the French and German classics, and from 1838-42 he edited a series of volumes entitled Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature, a work of 14 volumes, published in Philadelphia. He became associated in 1842-43 with that remarkable group of men and women who joined in the famous Brook Farm experiment, of which he was the originator and chief founder. In 1846 Mr. R. withdrew from the enterprise, thoroughly persuaded that Fourierism was a failure practically. Previously, in 1840-41, he had been engaged, with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Margaret Fuller, in editing The Dial, a magazine devoted to transcendentalism; and from 1854-48 he was associated with Parke Godwin, Charles A. Dana, and John S. Dwight in editing The Harbinger, more popular in its make-up than The Dial had been, but still devoted to the philosophy of the Concord School. In 1849 he became literary editor of the New York Tribune, a position he filled until his last illness. In 1853 he assumed, in company with Charles A. Dana, the editorship of the New American Cyclopedia, a work for which his student life had admirably fitted him. He was also joint editor with Mr. Dana of the revised edition which appeared in 1874. In 1854 he prepared, in conjunction with Bayard Taylor, a Hand-book of Literature and the Fine Arts. His independent works, besides a vast amount of miscellaneous writings, are Discourses on the Philosophy of Religion (1859) and Letters to Andrews Norton on the Latest Forms of Infidelity, (1840.) His monument is the American Cyclopedia, every page of which was subject to his critical supervision. As theologian, essayist, reviewer, and editor he won high and merited distinction. Rip on, a city of Fond du Lac Co., Wis., on an inlet of Green Lake. It is the seat of Ripon Coll., (Cong.,) and has manufactures of carriages, wagons, flour, etc. Pop. 5,354. 2205 Ri'pon, Mar'quis of, (George F. S. R.,) long known as Earl de Grey and Ripon, b. Eng. 1827; secretary of war 1863, secretary of state for India 1866; President of the Council 1868; chairman of commission which negotiated treaty of Washington 1871; resigned the grand mastership of the Free Masons in 1874 to enter R. C. Church; in the Gladstonian ministry 1892 became secretary of state for the colonies. Rip'ple-marks. Undulations similar to those observed on sandy shores, and produced by the particles of sand being drifted along by the water, have been observed on the sandstones of all ages. See RAIN-PRINTS. Rising, in Her., a term applied to a bird when represented opening his wings as if about to take flight. Rising in the Air, the name of a belief (prevalent in the Middle Ages) that the bodies of holy persons were some. times lifted up and suspended in the air during the continu ance of a religious ecstasy. St. Philip of Neri, in his relig. ious ecstacies, was elevated in the air, sometimes to the height of several yards. In a recent biography of Girolamo Savonarola it is also stated that while that martyr was in prison, shortly before his execution, he was observed once while in prayer raised from the ground, and was seen distinctly sus pended in the air for some short period. This belief falls in with one of the alleged phenomena of modern spiritualism. Risotto, an elegant Ital. dish, consisting chiefly of rice. Onions are shredded into a frying-pan with plenty of butter, and they are fried together until the onions become very brown, and communicate their color to the butter. The butter is then run off, and to this is added some rich broth, slightly colored with saffron, and the whole is thickened with wellboiled rice, and served up instead of soup at the commencement of a dinner. Ris'sole, a culinary preparation used as an entrée. It consists of meat or fish of any kind finely minced and made into small forms, which are then coated with a very thin crust either of pastry or of bread-crumbs mixed with yelk of egg, and fried. There is great variety in this dish. Risto'ri, (ADELAIDE,) a celebrated Ital. tragic actress, was b. in 1821 at Cividale in Frioul. Her parents were strolling players, and she almost began life in the theater. At the age of 14 she played in "Francesca da Rimini," and in a few yrs, became the leading Italian actress. Her talents, her beauty, and her grace made her a universal favorite. In 1847 her marriage with the Marquis Capranica del Grillo (who d. in 1861) temporarily interrupted her dramatic career; but after two yrs, she returned to the stage, and appeared at Rome in 1849 in Alfieri's tragedy of Myrrha." In 1866, and again in 1874, she came to the U. S., where as Queen Elizabeth, Marie Antoinette, Mary Stuart, etc., she won unbounded applause. Ri'sus Sardo'nicus, (Lat. risus, “a laugh," and sardonia, "belonging to Sardinia,") a peculiar expression of the face in which the features are distorted by spasms of the muscles so as to present the appearance of a painful grin or laugh. It is usually observed in tetanus or lock-jaw. Ri'ta-Christi'na, a celebrated double monster, b. in Sardinia in 1829. It lived to be nearly nine months old. Two distinct bodies were united at the pelvis. Below the monster was single. Ritch'ie, (ANNA CORA MOWATT,) a New York writer and actress, b. in France 1818; married J. Mowatt, Esq., 1838, and Mr. F. W. R., editor of the Richmond Enquirer, 1854 ; d. 1870. Rite, (Lat. ritus,) in general an external sign or action employed in religious use, and designed either to express or to excite a corresponding internal religious feeling. The ancient Jewish religion abounded with Rs. and ceremonies. The great ground of difference in the Puritan controversy in England, and the corresponding disputes in Continental churches, was the lawfulness of ceremonies. The name R. is sometimes used to signify the aggregate of all the ceremonies used in a particular religious office, as the "R." of baptism or of the Eucharist. In a still wider sense it is used of the whole body of distinctive ceremonial, including the liturgy employed by a particular community of Christians. In this way we speak of the "Roman R.," the "Greek R.," the "Syrian R.," the "Armenian R.," the "Coptic" or the "Slavonic R." Ritenu'to, (Ital. "kept back,") a term in Mus., implying that the speed of the movement is to be diminished. Rit'ner, (JOSEPH,) statesman; Gov. of Pa. 1835-39; Director of the Mint 1849; b. 1780, d. 1869. Ritornello, (Ital. “return,”) in Mus., in its original sense, a short repetition like that of an echo, or a repetition of the closing part of a song by one or more instruments. Rit'schel, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) one of the first clas- the movement has provoked the loudest opposition. Most of sical philologists of modern times, b. in Thuringia 1806. the bishops have, directly or indirectly, expressed their disThe Prussian government conferred on him the rank of privy | approbation; the press, except two or three journals which councilor in 1856. In 1867 R., 30 of whose pupils were are its strenuous advocates, is almost unanimous in denounc then professors in German universities, was appointed For- ing it; the more moderate members of the High-Church eign Associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions and party discourage it; and active efforts have been made to Belles-lettres. He d. in 1876. arrest it by legislative interference. Ritschl, (ALBRECHT, Ph.D.,) a Ger. theologian, b. 1822, d. 1889; Prof. R. was one of the leading-if not the leadingrepresentatives of the so-called "mediating' or "conciliatory" theology of the Protestant Church of Germany. He was elected in 1860 Prof. of Theology in the University of Bonn, and in 1864 accepted a call to a similar position in the University of Göttingen, where he lectured on dogmatics and ethics until his death. Rivarolo Canave'se, an Ital. town, in the prov. of Turin; pop. 6,500. Rivarolo Ligure, an Ital. town, in the prov. of Genoa; pop. 7,000. Rive-de-Gier, a manufacturing town of France, in the Dept. of the Loire; pop. 13,946. Steam-engines, bottles, ribbons, and steel are manufactured. River. In the articles on WINDS and CLOUDS we have Rit'tenhouse, (David, F.R.S., LL.D.,) a mathematical shown how, through the general circulation of the atmos instrument and clock-maker of Pa., distinguished for his as-phere, the moisture evaporated from the sea is distributed tronomical observations and discoveries; was Director of the U. S. Mint 1792-95, and rendered many important public services; b. 1732, d. 1796. Rit'ter, (FREDERICK LOUIS,) a well-known teacher of music in Am., b. in Strasburg in 1834; settled in Cincinnati, but later removed to New York, where he became leader of the Arion Society; in 1867 was appointed Prof. of Music at Vassar Coll. Published various works. D. 1891. Rit'ter, (HEINRICH,) a Ger. philosopher, b. in 1791; studled theology at Halle, Göttingen, and Berlin from 1811 to 1815, and in 1824 was created professor extraordinarius at Berlin University. In 1835 he accepted a call to the university at Kiel, and went thence in 1837 to Göttingen. R. owes his literary fame especially to his profound works on the history of philosophy. The principal are Ueber die Bildung des Philosophen durch die Geschichte der Philosophie, ("On the Education of the Philosopher through the History of Philosophy,") 1817; Welchen Einfluss hat die Philosophie des Cartesius auf die Ausbildung der des Spinoza gehabt? D. 1869. Rit'ter, (KARL,) an illustrious geographer, b. in Prussia 1779, d. 1859. With R., as the founder of general comparative geography, begins a new epoch in the history of geographical science. His chief works are Die Erdkunde im Verhältnisse zur Natur und Geschichte des Menschen; Die Stupas, oder die Architect, Monumente, etc., ("The Stupas, or the Architectural Monuments on the Indo-Bactrian Royal Road, and the Colossus of Bamyan.") Rit'ual, the name of one of the service-books of the Roman Church, in which are contained the prayers and order of ceremonial employed in the administration of certain of the sacraments and other offices of the Church. Rit'ualism, the name given to the remarkable increase of ceremonial in the Church of England since the yr. 1863. It may be considered as a development of Tractarianism. Its collateral causes may be said to be: (1) The great advance of æsthetic taste, and the increased cultivation of the fine arts in the service of religion. (2) The extended study by the clergy of ancient liturgies, and the connection discovered to exist between them and the offices of the English Church. With the spread of High-Church principles certain changes in the mode of conducting divine services had been introduced by the clergy, which, though unpopular at first, were widely adopted, and up to a certain point had received the sanction of the law. But the restored church with low and open benches; the separated chancel; the altar-table with coverings of different color according to the ecclesiastical seasons, and candle-sticks, and a cross upon or over it; choral services, and weekly celebration of the communion, were all that had hitherto been attempted. To these com paratively small alterations important additions have recently been made, viz.: (1) Special vestments at the celebration of the holy communion, and at certain other times, viz., for the - celebrant, an alb and stoles of different color, and chasuble; for the assisting ministers, albs with tunicles, according to the seasons. At other times a cope is worn instead of a chasuble. (2) Lighted candles on the altar at holy communion. (3) Incense burned either in a "thurible" or in a standing vessel. (4) The mixing of water with wine for the communion. (5) The use of wafer-bread. (6) Elevation of the elements either during or after consecration. (7) The attendance of non-communicants at the holy communion. (8) Processions with crosses, banners, and vested attendants. It is a remarkable index of the change of popular feeling within the last 10 yrs. that such bold and startling changes, altering the whole character of the Anglican service, should by a large number of people be not only tolerated but approved. Among the "Protestant" members of the Church over the land by re-condensation into rain or snow; so there is probably not a drop of water that has not been borne on the wings of the wind. Part of the moisture thus restored to the earth is re-absorbed by the air, part sustains animal and vegetable life, part penetrates the porous soil, and part is directly carried off by streams. That portion which at a high level sinks into the ground feeds the springs which on mountain or hill sides are generally pure and cold, unless when they dissolve foreign matter or come from deeper strata, thus giving rise to mineral springs and to hot springs respectively. Springs may be perennial or intermittent, ac cording to the constant or temporary supply of percolated water. Artesian wells depend for their supply on hydrostatic pressure, the water falling on high levels penetrating the soil until it reaches an inclined impermeable stratum below, where the water collects and presses upward; there are even fresh-water springs found in the bed of the ocean. The rills issuing from springs and surface drainage unite in their downward course with others, forming rivulets, brooks, and streams. Rs. may also rise from lakes and glaciers. They ultimately discharge their water and sediment into the sea, forming shoals and deltas at their mouths; or, more rarely, they pour into lakes, or lose themselves, especially in tropical countries, in sandy soil, or through excessive evaporation during the hot season. The path of a R. is called its course, the hollow channel through which it flows its bed, the surface of the land over which its tributaries spread its basin or drainage area. The boundary which separates a R. basin from an adjoining one is known as the water-shed or divide. The variation or periodicity in the volume of discharge depends on the amount of rain and its distribution over the seasons, and on the supply of melted snow as well as on the copiousness of evaporation. The periodical flooding of a R. reaches its maximum some time after the height of the season of melting snow, or after the middle of the rainy season. Time being required for the collection of the waters the interval is necessarily greater for the lower part of the R. Floods due to periodical rains in tropical countries follow the cessation of the trade winds after the vernal equinox, or when the sun crosses the equator, and they also depend on the turn of the monsoon. Rs. may be classified according to their length or according to their volume of water discharged, as one or the other may be of greater importance. Length, however, is a very indefinite measure; thus the windings of the Vistula are nine tenths of the direct course, and the Danube measures 900 m. in the direct course, but 2,400 m. including its meanderings. The courses of Rs. frequently change as they pass from one geological formation or feature to another; and their velocity, as depending on declivity alone, is retarded by bends, by enlargements in the width of their beds, and by any obstacles met in their paths, as rocks. A slope of 1 in 200 prevents a R. from being navigable. Most destructive local floods are often due to temporary obstructions by large masses of ice accumulated in narrow por tions of the bed. The swiftest current in straight courses is near the middle of the stream, at or near its surface, but in bends it is deflected by centrifugal force to the concave side, and is most liable to alter its direction by abrasion of the shore. Sediment is generally deposited at places of least velocity. Deltas formed by deposit are said to be fluviatile, lacrustrine, or maritime, according as the R. forming them falls into another R., lake, or ocean. In illustration of what has been said we shall briefly pass in review some character. istic features of the more remarkable Rs. of the globe. The principal Rs. of N. Am., beginning with those farthest N., are the Mackenzie, (about 2,300 m. 1.;) the Yukon, (more than 2,000 m. 1.,) frozen for nearly half the yr.; the Sas RIVER. katchewan, and Nelson; the St. Lawrence, with its almost unique feature of connecting great lakes, 2,150 m. 1., and drainage area estimated at 400,000 sq. m.; the Columbia, with an estimated 1. of 1,500 m.; the Colorado, about 1,200 m. 1., with its celebrated cañons nearly 300 m. 1.; and the Mississippi, with its great tributary the Missouri. The 1. of the Mississippi by its tortuous channel is nearly 3,160 m.; but if the Missouri be considered the main stem it is 4,260 m., with a joint stream drainage not far from 1,250,000 sq. m. In its lower course the average velocity of its current is between 3 and 4 ft. per second, with an average slope be 2207 great floods, and loaded with mud, which discolors the Atlantic for 200 m. from its mouth. The basin of the Amazon and the La Plata can be easily connected for inland navigation. Of African Rs. we mention the Nile, the Congo, the Niger, and the Zambesi. The first has a winding course of about 3,000 m., and a drainage area of over 500,000 sq. m. Its fall in the lower course is 2 in. to the mile; its mean veloc ity 24 m. per hour. In Abyssinia the river begins to swell in April, but the flood is not sensible at Cairo till toward the summer solstice. The water continues to rise for three months; the greatest height is late in Sept., the lowest level in April tween the mouth of the Missouri and the delta of rather less | and May. The second, or Congo, but recently explored, ranks than 1 ft. in 3 m. The river discharges annually 145 cubic m. of water into the Gulf. The range or greatest rise and fall of the water between Cairo and Natchez is 52 ft. The sediment carried in suspension is about of its whole bulk. The Rio Grande is about 1,500 m. 1. In S. Am. we have the giant R., the Amazon, with its numerous large tributaries; to the N. of it the Orinoco, and to the S. the Rio de la Plata, the two next largest. The Amazon is about 3,800 m. 1., and the drainage area exceeds 2,250,000 sq. m. Its slope is remarkably small, less than 1 in. to the mile, but it is of great w.-2 m. and more. The Cassiquiare joins the upper Orinoco to the Rio Negro, a principal affluent of the Amazon. The Orinoco is high between April and Aug. It is different with the Amazon, whose waters are highest in March and least in July and Aug. The Rio de la Plata forms the third great water system of S. Am. It is about 2,700 m. 1., subject to among the great Rs. of the globe. It is over 2,500 m. 1.; in its lower course it is several miles in width. The Niger, about 2,300 m. 1., has its flood in Aug. The Zambesi, another great R., forms the Victoria Falls, said to rival, if not to surpass, in grandeur the Falls of Niagara. Of Asiatic Rs. the Euphrates and Tigris, though small, are of greatest historical interest. In India we have the Indus, about 1,700 m. 1., area 400,000 sq. m., and highest stage in July. The Ganges and Brahmapootra, the former about 1,600, the latter about 1,700, m. 1., with discharges in the dry season of 80,000 and 240,000 cubic ft. per second respectively. These two streams drain an area of 650,000 sq. m. The months of greatest flood are July and Aug. Other large Rs. are the Irrawaddy, the Salwen, and the Cambodia. The greatest Rs. traversing China are the Hoang-Ho (about 2,800 m. 1.) and Yang-tseKiang, (3,100 m. 1.) Of remaining Rs. of note we can but mention the Amoor, (2,000 m. 1.,) basin 850,000 sq. m.; the oners. Their defeat was followed by the surrender of ManLena, the Yenisei, (3,000 m. 1.,) Irtish, and Obi, (2,500 m. 1.) | tua. For his part in this battle Masséna was made Duke of Of European Rs. we mention in the order of their magnitude Rivoli in 1807. the Volga, (direct 1. 1,040 m., winding 1. 2,300 m., area 560,000 sq. m.,) the Dnciper, (1,900 m. 1.,) the Danube, and the Rhine. The Australian Rs. are small and relatively unimportant. River-crab, (Thelphusa,) a genus of crabs inhabiting fresh water, and having the carapace quadrilateral, the antennæ very short. One species, the Grancio of the Italians, is very common in the S. of Europe. Other species are common in warm countries. T. Cunicularis is very abundant on the Ghauts of the Deccan, in India. Riverhead', a village of Suffolk Co., N. Y., 75 m. N.-E. of Brooklyn, and 4 m. from Long Island Sound, containing six churches, an academy, a newspaper, a savings bank, and several mills and manufactories; pop. of town 4,010. Riv'ers, (RICHARD H., D.D.,) educator; Pres. of Centenary Coll., La., 1849; of La Grange Coll. 1854; later of several well-known seminaries; b. 1814, d. 1894. Riv'erside Park, a narrow strip of hilly ground situated on the margin of the Hudson River, between Seventysecond and One Hundred and Twenty-fifth Streets, New York. It is traversed by Riverside Drive, one of the finest boulevards in any city, and the scenery is beautiful and diversified. Here is the tomb of Gen. Grant. Rives, (AMÉLIE.) See CHANLER. Rives, (WILLIAM CABELL,) an Amer. statesman, b. in Va. 1793, d. 1868. He was successively member of Congress, minister to France, U. S. senator, and member of the Confederate Congress at Montgomery, Ala He wrote Life and Times of James Madison. Riv'et, a metal pin for connecting two plates of metal or other material together. The R. is put through holes in both plates, and the projecting ends are then beaten down so as to represent the head of a nail on each side, and thus hold the plates in close contact. Rs. are of the most essential importance in boiler and tank making, and in building iron ships. They are often put through the holes and beaten down while red-hot, in order that the contraction of the R. as it cools may produce more intimate contact of the plates. The principle of the riveting machine is simply the bringing a powerful lever to bear upon the head of the R., so that the smith can hammer upon the other and softened end without displacing it. Rix-dollar, a Scandinavian silver coin, varying in value from 40 cents to $1 of U. S. money. Riyad, a city of Arabia, cap. of the sultanate of Nedjed, in the prov. of Aared, lat. 24° 38' 34" N., long. 46° 41′ 48′′ E.; pop. 40,000. It is a nearly square walled town, surrounded by palm-groves and well-watered gardens. The walls are massive and strong, and are defended by a deep trench and embankment. R. is the great center of Wahabitism. Ri'zah, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Trebizond; pop. 30,000. Roach, a fish of the family Cyprinidæ, very plentiful in many of the lakes, ponds, and slow-running rivers of England and of the S. of Scotland. Roach, (JOHN,) a famous Amer. iron ship-builder, was b. in Ireland 1813, d. in New York 1887. He was emphatically a self-made man, and his shipyards at Chester, Pa., were the largest on this continent. He received the sobriquet of "the Father of American Ship-building." Roach. Roads and Road-making. The Romans were great constructors of roads, and regarded them as of vital impor tance for conquest and the maintenance of their empire. They are said to have learned the art from the Carthaginians. Except where some natural barrier made it impossible the Roman roads were almost invariably in a straight line. The substantial character of the Roman roads is well demonstrated by the fact that they have in some instances borne the traffic of 2,000 yrs. without material injury. They vary in w. from 15 to 8 ft. In laying out a new line of road the skill and ingenuity of the engineer are taxed to make the gradients easy, with as little expense as possible in excavating and embanking, and to do this without deviating much from the direct course between the fixed points through which the road must pass. In order to do this an accurate survey of the tract, including the relative levels of its different parts and the nature of the strata, is a necessary prelim. inary. The formation of an extended line of road often involves the construction of extensive bridges, viaducts, and Rivier'a, The, consists of the land along the coast of the like, which require the greatest engineering skill. What Italy around and on either side of the Gulf of Genoa. It is is the best transverse form for a road is a much debated divided into two parts, that on the W. being called the R. di question among engineers. All agree that it should be higher Ponente, and that on the E. the R. di Levanti. The Apen- in the middle than at the sides, but some think it should be nines lie to the northward and the eastward of this tract, much higher than do others. As a road can be better kept which is famous throughout the civilized world for its de- clear of water by a slight inclination in the direction of its lightful climate. Here are situated some of the most cele-length than by any form which can be given to its crossbrated watering-places in Europe. Among them are the section, it seems preferable that it should be as nearly flat as noted Monaco, Nice, Cannes, and Bordighera, while places of possible, because every part of its breadth will then be less note are Ventimiglia, Savona, Mentone, San Remo, and equally available for traffic. As respects the construction of Oneglia. All these towns are in the R. di Ponente. Genoa the road itself the first point to consider is the foundation. is at the top of the gulf, and the two Rs. meet there. In the The majority of roads have no artificial foundation. In such eastern, or R. di Levanti, are Chiavari, Levanto, Massa, and cases the surface on which the road material is to be laid Spezia, while at its south-easterly extremity the Arno flows is generally made as solid as possible by means of efficient into the Ligurian Sea. Some of the other places mentioned drainage, and by rolling and beating wherever there are emlie to the northward of the Apennines in the direction of bankments formed. It is the question whether or not a road Milan, and are not, strictly speaking, in the R. The R. di should have a foundation of rough pavement below the Ponente was once famous in the history of posting, but broken stone covering which is the essential point of differsince the building of the railway few travel by carriage. ence between the two great rival systems of Telford and Some persons still prefer the road along the Cornice. The Macadam. Telford considered it of great importance that portion nearest Nice is one of the most beautiful drives in there should be such a foundation. He made it of stones Italy or France. On Feb. 23, 1887, the R. was devastated varying in depth from 9 in. at the center to 3 in. at the sides by an earthquake, 2,000 lives being lost. of the road, these being set with their broadest edge downRiviere du Loup, two villages of Lower Canada, with ward, and no stone being more than 4 in. w. on the upper about 1,500 inhabitants each. edge; upon these were placed a coating of broken stones not exceeding 6 in. in thickness. Macadam preferred a yielding and soft foundation to one which was rigid and unyielding, so that even on boggy ground-even if it were but firm enough to allow of a man walking over it—he considered an artificial bottoming quite unnecessary. His roads were formed entirely of angular pieces of stone of such a size as to pass through a ring 2 in. in diameter. The stone employed should be tough as well as hard. Some of the finest roads in the world are said to traverse almost every part of China. Hence the R.R. has as yet found no favor among the Celestials. Riv'ington, (JAMES,) a noted Royalist printer of colonial times, who established the New York Gazetteer 1773, which becoming obnoxious to the patriots, they destroyed his press and melted his type into bullets. In Oct., 1777, the city being occupied by the British, he resumed the publication of his paper under the old title, afterward changed to the Royal Gazette. After the evacuation of New York he changed it to Rivington's New York Gazette and Universal Advertiser, but his business rapidly declined, and his paper was soon stopped. B. in England 1724, d. 1802. Rivoli, a village of Venetia, Italy, on the W. bank of the Adige, 12 m. N.-W. of Verona; pop. about 1,000. On Jan. Ro'anne, a town of France, in the Dept. of the Loire; pop. 14 and 15, 1797, Bonaparte here gained a great victory over 31,380. Around and within the town are to be found numer. the Austrians commanded by Alvinczy, who lost 20,000 pris-ous traces of the ancient rule and civilization of the Romans. ROANOKE-ROBERTSON. Roanoke, a river of Va. and N. C., formed by the union at Clarksville, Va., of the Dan and Staunton Rivers, which rise in the Alleghanies, flows S.-E. through the N.-E. portion of N. C., and empties into Albemarle Sound. It is said to be navigable for large vessels to Weldon, the head of tide-water, 150 m. It is 260 m. 1. In 1861 Albemarle Island, at its mouth, and Plymouth were taken by the Federal gun-boats. Roanoke, a city of Roanoke Co., Va., on the Shenandoah Valley and Norfolk and Western R.RS.; pop. 16,159. It is the trading metropolis of a wide area of highly productive territory, and boasts of several banks, hotels, wholesale business houses, schools, newspapers, churches, etc. Roanoke College, at Salem, Va., chartered 1853, was the only college within the bounds of the Southern Confederacy which held its regular sessions during the civil war. It has a large library, a fine mineralogical cabinet, is under Lutheran auspices, and has about 170 students and 12 professors. Roar'ing, a disease of the air-passages of the horse, is characterized by a grating, roaring noise, most noticeable during inspiration, and when the animal is galloping in heavy ground. It usually depends upon wasting of some of the muscles of the larynx. He should have a liberal supply of good oats, but only a limited allowance of hay, which should be given dampened. Roast'ing. All the apparently numerous forms of cookery may be reduced to two, viz., R. and Boiling. In this general sense R. may be held to include broiling, baking, and all other processes which consist essentially in the exposure of food to the action of beat without the presence of any fluid excepting its own natural juices. Chemistry and experience alike teach that the first application of heat in R. should be powerful and rapid, so as to form an external wall by hardening the skin and coagulating the superficial albuminous juices, and thus retain the deep-seated juices as much as possible within the meat. Unless the R. is continued long enough those parts which are nearest the center do not become hot enough to allow the albuminous matters to coagulate, and hence they appear red, juicy, and underdone. Robbery, in Law, larceny from the person, preceded by violence or the fear of violence. To constitute simple R. there must be what is called asportation, or a seizure of the goods. Robbins, (ASHUR, LL.D.,) lawyer and statesman; U. S. District Attorney 1821; U. S. senator from Conn. 1825-39; b. at Wethersfield 1757, d. at Newport 1845. Rob'bins, (ROYAL, D.D.,) author and historian, b. in Conn. 1788; is author of several books, and of the History of American Literature; d. 1861. Robbins, (THOMAS, D.D.,) an Amer. man of letters; was secretary and founder of the Conn. Historical Society, and bequeathed to it his valuable library; b. 1777, d. 1856. Rob'ert II., King of Scotland 1371-90, was b. 1316. His father was Walter Stewart, and his mother Marjory, only daughter of Robert the Bruce. During the disastrous reign of his uncle, David II., he was one of the most prominent of the patriotic nobles of Scotland. On the death of David he obtained the crown and became the founder of the Stuart dynasty. Partly from disposition, and partly from the infirmities of age, R. proved a peaceable ruler. The most celebrated incidents of R.'s reign were the invasions of Scotland by an English military and naval force under the command of the Duke of Lancaster, and the grand retaliatory expedition of the Scots in 1388, when two armies invaded and devastated England. R. d. 1390. Rob'ert III., King of Scotland, son of the preceding, b. about 1340. His baptismal name was John, but this name, for reasons not ascertained, was changed on his accession to the throne in 1390 by an act of the Scottish Estates, or Parliament. His imbecility as a ruler virtually placed the reins of government in the hands of his ambitious brother, Robert, Earl of Monteith and Fife, whom, in 1397, he created Duke of Albany-during whose reign the Scottish barons first began to exercise that anarchic and disloyal authority which, in the reigns of the first three Jameses, threatened to destroy the power of the sovereign altogether. The principal events in R.'s reign were the invasion of Scotland, 1400, by Henry IV. of England, who, at the head of a large army, penetrated as far as Edinburgh, but did not inflict much injury on the country, more, however, from clemency than impotence; and the retaliatory expedition of the Scotch in the following yr., under Archibald Douglas, son of the Grimm Earl, which resulted in the terrible disaster at Homildon Hill. D. 1406 of grief at the death of his son. 66 2209 was the very per ceeded as duke 1027; d. at Nicæa 1035; Rob'ert of Gloucester, an old Eng. chronicler; he was alive about 1265. Robert's work is a "history" of English affairs from the arrival of the fabulous Brutus down to the end of Henry III.'s reign. The principal extant MSS. are the Bodleian, the Cottonian, and the Harleian. Rob'erts, (DAVID, R.A.,) a painter of great eminence, b. at Edinburgh 1796. In 1826 a picture of "Rouen Cathedral," exhibited by R. at the Royal Academy, drew attention by its marked ability. From this time forward he grew steadily in fame, and in 1854 he was selected by the queen to paint for her the "Inauguration of the Great Exhibition in 1851," a task which he achieved with admirable success. In his chosen field of architecture during all his later life he was admittedly without a rival. In addition to his unremitting work for the academy he illustrated many books, and issued the admirable series of lithographs, “Spanish Sketches," which attained a great popularity. D. 1864. Rob'erts, (MARSHALL O.,) a New York merchant, b. 1813, d. at Saratoga, N. Y., 1880. He was well known in the mailcarrying and shipping trade between the East and Calif.; was for some yrs. president of the Pacific Mail Steam-ship Company, and a chief stock-holder; he behaved with great patriotism during the civil war, placing the famous steamer Star of the West at the disposal of the federal government, which vessel was fired upon by the Confederates while endeavoring to supply Maj. Anderson with necessaries. He was associated with nearly every prominent enterprise of the last 50 yrs. of his life in this country. Rob'erts, (ROBERT RICHFORD, D.D.,) a noted Amer. M. E. preacher; elected one of the bishops of that Church in 1816; was called by the Indians "the grandfather of all the Missionaries; b. 1776, d. 1843. Rob'ertson, (CHARLES FRANKLIN, S.T.D.,) an Amer. prelate; was consecrated P. E. Bishop of Mo. 1868; was b. in N. Y. 1835, d. 1886. Rob'ortson, (FREDERICK WILLIAM, M.A.,) a noted Eng. preacher, was the son of a Scotch gentleman, Capt. Frederick R., of the Royal Artillery, and was b. in London 1816. He was offered the incumbency of Trinity Chapel, Brighton. Ilis "career" in Brighton-though it is perhaps wrong to describe a life so pure, delicate, unselfish, devoted as his by a term expressive of vulgar ambition-was brief but glorious. For six yrs. he continued to preach sermons, the like of which, for blending of delicacy and strength of thought, poetic beauty, and homely lucidity of speech, had perhaps never been heard before in England. D. 1853. Ilis sermons (of which four series have been published) have attained great popularity and a very large circulation. His Expository Lectures on St. Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians appeared in 1859, and the Lectures and Addresses on Literary and Social Topics contain passages of faultless beauty and refinement. Rob'ertson, (JACOB, D.D.,) the first foreign missionary of the P. E. Church, being sent to Athens 1828 as commissioner to the Greek Church, was b. 1795. Dr. R. remained in that city, in the island of Lyra, and at Constantinople for 18 yrs., and afterward settled at Fishkill and Saugerties on the Hudson. Rob'ertson, (JAMES,) soldier; major-general of British forces in the U. S. 1776; commissioned as royal Gov. of N. Y. 1779; returned to England 1783; b. in Scotland 1725, d. 1788. Rob'ertson, (JOSEPII,) the most accomplished Scottish antiquary of the present century, b. at Aberdeen 1810. The work by which he was first generally known, The Book of Bon-accord; or, A Guide to the City of Aberdeen, was pub lished in 1839. A continuation of this work was promised, but was never completed. In the following yr. his Delicice Literaria, a New Volume of Table Talk, was published. In 1739 he undertook the editorship of the Aberdeen Constitu tional. D. 1866. Rob'ertson, (THOMAS W.,) actor and playwright, b. in England 1829, d. 1871; became an actor in a traveling dramatic company; he produced many popular plays, among which are "David Garrick," "Society," "Ours," "Caste," "Play," "School," etc. Rob'ertson, (WILLIAM,) an eminent British historian, was Rob'ert II., surnamed "the Devil," b. in Normandy; suc- b. 1721 in the county of Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1759 he |