RUSSELL-RUSSIA, EMPIRE OF. Eric, besides a number of marine sketches contributed to the London press. Rus'sell, (WILLIAM H., LL.D.,) b. in Ireland 1821; studied at Trinity Coll., Dublin; became a lawyer in London, but is best known as correspondent of the London Times, in which capacity he attained a high celebrity in the Crimea, the late civil war in the U. S., the Indian mutiny, the AustroPrussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War. In 1858 he founded the Army and Navy Gazette. Knighted 1895. Rus'sia, Empire of, extending over a large proportion of the N. regions of the globe, includes the E. part of Europe, the whole of northern Asia, and a part of central Asia. Lat. 38° 30' and 78° N.; long. 17° 19' E. and 190° E., (170° W.) The portion of N. Am. which formerly belonged to R. was ceded to the U. S. in 1867. R. is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by the Pacific Ocean, on the S. by the Chinese Empire, Turkestan, Caspian Sea, Persia, Asiatic and European Turkey, and the Black Sea, and on the W. by Austria, Prussia, the Baltic, and Sweden. The area of R. amounts to 8,644,100 sq. m. The empire thus covers nearly one twenty-sixth of the globe, and one seventh of the land superficies of the planet. The pop. of P. by the census of 1897 is 129,211,113. Topography.--The N. shores of the Russian territories, which are washed by the Arctic Ocean, are deeply indented. The White Sea, an immense arm of the Arctic Ocean, penetrates 350 m. into the main-land, and is subdivided into the Gulfs of Onega and Archangel or Dwina. The other chief inlets on the N. of R. are the Kara Arms of Russia. TURKEY IN ASIA Constantinople Sea and Gulfs of Obi and Yenisei. W. from Nova Zembla the Arctic Ocean is navigable for three months of the yr.; E. from that island the sea, even at the mildest season, is incumbered with floating icebergs. The chief islands in this ocean are the Kolgeuf, Waigatz, Nova Zembla, and Spitzbergen. The E. shores of R. are washed by the Pacific, subdivided into the Behring, Okhotsk, and Japan Seas; and the islands belonging to the country in these seas are Sakhalin and the N. part of the Kuriles. On the S. are the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. Of the Caspian Sea R. commands the whole, with the exception of the S. shore, which belongs to Persia. On the N.-W. of R. are the Baltic Sea, with the Gulfs of Riga, Finland, and Bothnia; and in these waters the islands of Aland, Esel, and Dago belong to the empire. European R. consists of a vast plain bordered with mountains. On the E. are the Ural Mountains. On the S.-E. of the great plain is the lofty range of the Caucasus, crossed by the Pass of Derbend and the so-called Military Georgian Road. The Crimean Mountains, a continuation of the Caucasian chain, rise to 5,000 ft. in their highest summit. The Alaunsky heights 2241 form the great water-shed and regulate the course of all the great rivers of the Russian Empire. To the N. they throw off the Petchora, the Northern Dwina, and the Onega; to the S. the Dneister, Bug, Dnieper, Don, and Kouban; to the S.-E. the Volga, with its great affluents, the Oka and Kama. The Western Dwina, the Niemen, and the Vistula fall into the Baltic Sea. At the foot of the N.-W. slope from the central terrace is the lake country of European R.; and the great lakes are Ladoga, Onega, Ilmen, Peipus, and Pskov the Elton Lake, yielding nearly 4,000,000 puds (about 1,290,000 cwts.) of salt annually, is the most remarkable. Government. The government is an unlimited monarchy, the head of which is the emperor, who unites in himself every authority and power, and is also ecclesiastical chief of the orthodox Greek Church. The order of succession is by primogeniture, hereditary in heirs-male, and in females in default of males. The expenses of the imperial house amount to about $7,500,000 annually; the private property of the imperial family, yielding about $5,000,000 annually, is excluded from the budget. The council of state is the highest branch of the executive, and comprehends the legislative, judicial, and administrative powers. The second of the great boards of government is the Senate, whose functions are partly deliberative and partly executive. It is the high court of justice for the empire. The Senate is divided into seven committees or departments, of which five sit at St. Petersburg and two at Moscow. The third college is the Holy Synod, superintending the religious affairs of the empire. The fourth great board of the government is the committee of ministers, the highest administrative body. It is divided into nine departments, which have under their management the court, foreign affairs, war, the navy, the interior, public instruction, finances, crown domains, public works, and has besides a general board of control. All of these great boards center in the private cabinet of the empire. European R. is divided into 50 provinces, over each of which is a governor, appointed by the emperor, and who is the head of the civil administration of the province or government. By the Russian law capital punishment is only inflicted for high treason, or lèse-majesté. Corporal punishment by the KNOUT (q. v.) was abolished in 1863. The severest punishments inflicted for violations of the law are labor in the galleys, in the public works, deportations to the mines in Siberia, etc. The nobility occupy the highest place in the social scale. Functionaries, officials, artists, and the clergy possess almost as many privileges as the nobility. In 1868 a most important measure was passed, by which the clerical character was declared to be no longer hereditary. The next class is that of the merchants. The burghers and peasants constitute the lowest class. The recent emancipation gave freedom to 20,000,000 peasants or serfs, who prior to the yr. 1861, being governed exclusively by their owners, enjoyed very limited civil rights. Communal government is the fundamental principle of all the rights of the peasant class. The density of population of European R. is considerably greater than that of the Asiatic part of the empire. R. in Europe, (including Poland and Finland,) comprising an area of 2,041,402 English sq. m., with 86,486,959 inhabitants, has on the average 40 individuals to the square mile, while Asiatic R., extending over 6,479,235 English sq. m., with 16,195,165 inhabitants, has not much more than two individuals to the square mile. The oasis of Merv was annexed to R. in Asia in 1884, the Akhal-Tekke country having been annexed in 1883. In 1884 the prov. of Batum and the Sukhum district were included in Kutais. The transcaspian region, which is under the governor of the Caucasus, has been divided into the districts of Mangishlak, Mikhailovsk, and Akhal-Tekke. R. in Europe has 16,715 m. of R.R. The Russian boundaries were first advanced to the sea under Peter the Great, and from the genius of that monarch the Russian navy sprang. Besides the naval depots on the Baltic, the Black, and the Caspian Seas there are also naval establishments on the shores of the northern Pacific and on the Amoor. R. has about 147 war vessels in the Baltic Sea, 31 in the Black Sea, and 55 on other waters. In all there are about 358 ships, with an aggregate burden of 190,000 tons, 29 being iron-clads. The expenditure for the navy is estimated at $35,000,000 annually. Religion and Education.Toleration of all religions which do not violate public morality or good order exists in R., and not to profess the orthodox Greek faith, the national religion, does not disqualify for the enjoyment of any civil right. The law does not, however, allow those who already belong to the established faith to secede from it. The emperor is head of the Church, the 2242 RUSSIAN CHURCH-RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. chinery, cotton, silk, woolen, and linen stuffs. Geology.—A more intimate knowledge of the geological structure of R. may be said to date from 1841, when the eminent geologist, Sir R. I. Murchison, undertook a scientific journey to R. and the Ural Mountains. The oldest stratified rocks are the Silurian on the S. shores of the Gulf of Finland, sinking below the Devonian strata, which run in two large branches-on the S.-E. to Veronesh, and on the N.-W. to Archangel, both overlaid to the E. by a still more extensive deposit of carboniferous rocks. The immense triangle between those layers and the Ural is occupied by the Permian system, (except the N.-E. extremity, which is covered by Jurassic beds,) named by Sir R. I. Murchison from its development in the Govt. of Perm. To the S. of the S.-E. Devonian branch extend deposits of the cretaceous period and detached patches of the carboniferous formation. The Ural Mountains present an outcrop of all the secondary and palæozoic formations down to the stratified gneiss and granite. The Ural Mountains produce gold, platinum, copper, and iron of excellent quality. Emeralds and jaspers, etc., are also found, as well as diamonds of an inferior quality. Gold, silver, copper, plumbago, etc., are also obtained. Agriculture.— R. is an eminently agricultural country, although only a comparatively small portion is under cultivation. In the central zone the soil is almost entirely black mold, extremely fertile, and hardly ever requiring manure. The system of husbandry most extensively practiced is what is called the “three-field system," in the working of which one third of the land is always in fallow. The chief cereals are wheat, which is grown as far N. as lat. 62°, rye, barley, and oats. Buckwheat and millet are grown in the S., and from these, but especially from rye, the staple food of the inhabitants is made. Hemp and flax are extensively cultivated. Timber is the chief article of internal commerce, and is floated down the rivers from the well-wooded districts to those which are destitute of wood. In the N. and central provinces cattle are kept chiefly for the purpose of obtaining manure; but in other parts cattle-breeding is an important branch of industry. On an average there are 30,000,000 head of cattle in R. The great bulk of horses are obtained from the half wild studs of the Cossack, Kalmucks, and Kirghiz. The horses of Viatka, Kazan, and Finland are strong and hardy. The total number of the horses in R. is about 18,000,000. Sheep-breeding is carried on extensively on the S. steppes. Besides these animals there are camels in the S. of R., reindeer in the N., and hogs and poultry in great abundance every-where. A breed of the Urus, a huge and rare animal which does not occur in any other country, is preserved in a forest of the Govt. of Grodno. Among the wild animals are the bear, wolf, clk, fox, and marten; on the N. coasts are found the seal and walrus, and the eider-duck and other wild-fowl. The more expensive kinds of furs are procured from Siberia. Silk-worms are reared chiefly in the Caucasus, where 30,000 puds of silk are produced annually. The population of the Russian Empire is composed of various nationalities, but the predominant one is the Slavonic. affairs of which he directs by means of a synod composed of the chief prelates. For the education of the clergy there are four academies, 50 seminaries, and 201 schools, in which 54,000 persons are trained. The churches, convents, and the ecclesiastical departments in general are maintained by the government. The department of public instruction in R. is presided over by a ministry, although many of the schools are directed by other departments. The greater number of these establishments are supported out of the imperial treasury. Three academies for the staff, the engineers, and the artillery are devoted to the higher branches of military science. Theological education for the orthodox Church is superintended by the clergy. Many of the most important institutions in R., as the Academy of Sciences and the Pulkova Observatory, flourish in or near St. Petersburg. The Imperial Library at St. Petersburg, with upward of 1,000,000 volumes, is one of the finest in the world. The press of R., not yet much developed, is subject to special censorship. The foundling hospitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow receive annually about 15,000 abandoned infants and orphans. Railroads, Canals, and Telegraphs.-Good roads and ready means of communication are a great want in R., where the distances are so very great and the population so scanty. To keep the roads in repair is a work of the greatest difficulty, for two reasons-the first a difficulty in concentrating a sufficient amount of labor where the laborers are so few and so widely dispersed; and the other the melting of the snows and overflowing of the rivers in spring. | A great part of the land is not owned by individuals, but is held in common by the mir, or people of the commune in which it is situated. The more important political subdivisions are the governments, replaced in the newer parts of the empire by military districts or provinces. In 1857 only 784 m. of railway had been opened; but at the last report the mileage in R. in Europe in operation had risen to 16,715, while upward of 1,500 m. were being constructed. The four seas surrounding European R. are connected by canals (1) The Caspian is connected with the White Sea by the canal of the Prince of Würtemberg, between the river Scheksna, an affluent of the Volga, and the upper waters of the Northern Dwina. (2) The Caspian and Baltic are connected by three systems of canals. (See VOLGA.) (3) The Black Sea is connected with the Baltic by three lines of canals-those of Beresina, Oginsky, and Dneiper and Bug, between the affluents of the Dnieper and those of the Western Dwina, Niemen, and Vistula. The postal service was inaugurated in 1664. There are annually forwarded over 65,000,000 letters, 1,500,000 post-cards, 45,000,000 newspapers and stamped periodicals, and other packets, amounting in all to 130,000,000. The number of offices is 3,412. Notwithstanding the immense extent of the surface of R., and the distance from each other of its principal towns, these are now nearly all united by lines of electric telegraph. Thus far upward of 60,000 m. of telegraph have been laid by the Russian government, and 15,000 m. by private companies. Climate. Owing to the vast extent of its territory the Russian Empire presents great varieties of climate. At Archangel the mean temperature of the yr. is 32° Fahr.; at Yalta, in the Crimea, 52°; and at Kutais, in the Caucasus, 58°. Consisting of an immense area of dry land, the climate of the empire is essentially continental; and the climate of localities in its interior is much more rigorous than that of places on the W. shores of Europe in the same latitudes. The isothermal line of Astrakhan (60° Fahr.) passes through Lublin in Poland and Ekaterinoslav. The climate of R. is in general healthy. Productions.-Manufacturing industry in R. may be said to date from the reign of Peter the Great. With a view to its promotion foreign manufactured goods are heavily taxed on importation. At the last report the number of factories (exclusive of iron-works and all establishments engaged in the preparation of metals) was 23,000. The chief manufacture is spinning and weaving flax and hemp. The Russian Empire, including provinces varying widely in their natura! and industrial resources, presents an extensive field for internal commerce, while the abundance of its products maintains a vast foreign trade. Moscow, in the center of the industrial provinces of the empire, and the great depot for the wares that supply the trades of the interior, is the chief seat of the home trade. The foreign trade by sea is five times greater than the trade by land; the chief articles of export are cereals, flax, linseed, hemp, tow, tallow, wool, cattle, Rus'sian Language and Literature. Russian, a bristles, hides, wood, oil, and seeds. The chief articles of im- principal member of the Slavic family of languages, first beport are sugar, tea and coffee, cotton, cotton-yarn, raw-silk, came a written language in the time of Peter the Great, till iron, wine and other liquors, dyes, fruits and vegetables, ma- | which period the Old Slavic—the language of the Church Rus'sian Church, the community of Christians subject to the Emperor of Russia, using the Slavonic liturgy, and following the Russian rite. Christianity was introduced into Russia in the 9th c., (see OLGA,) but it was not till the end of the 10th that the foundation was regularly laid. One of the first among the great schemes for the reorganization of his empire conceived by Peter the Great was the suppression of the patriarchate, and the direct subordination of the Church to the headship of the emperor. The patriarchate was formally abolished in 1721, and the permanent administration of Church affairs was placed under the direction of a council called the "Holy Synod," or "Permanent Synod," consisting of archbishops, bishops, and archimandrites, all named by the emperor. As regards doctrine the R. C. may be regarded as identical with the common body of the Greek Church. The liturgy of the R. C. is the same as that of the Church of Constantinople; but it is celebrated not in the Greek but in the Slavonic language. Besides the estab lished R. C. there exists also in Russia a not inconsiderable body of dissenters of various kinds. But by far the most numerous dissenters are the Catholics, who are found chiefly in Poland and White Russia. Advances in theology are hardly to be looked for as yet from a Church so firm in its adherence to the past as is the Russian. RUSSIAS, ALL THE-RUTHERFURD. 2243 No rem Rust'chuk, an important town of the principality of Bulgaria, on the Danube; pop., of which nearly half are Moham medans, 30,000. Rus'tic or Rus'ticated Work and Rustica'tion, the name of that kind of masonry in which the various stones or courses are marked at the joints by splays or recesses. The surface of the stone is sometimes left rough, and sometimes polished or otherwise dressed. Rustication is chiefly used in classical or Italian architecture, although rustic quoins are often used in rough Gothic work. Ruta'ceæ, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, but containing a few herbaceous plants. Ru'ter, (MARTIN, D.D.,) an Amer. M. E. preacher, licensed at 16; became agent of the Western Book Concern; Pres. of Augusta Coll. 1828; of Alleghany Coll., Pa., 1834; and Superintendent of Missions in Tex.; b. in Mass. 1785, d. 1838. Rut'gers, (HENRY,) b. in New York about 1746; was graduated at Columbia (King's) Coll. 1766; served as an officer in the Revolution; was several times a member of the N. Y. Assembly; and was Regent of the University of New York from 1822-26; was a wealthy citizen, and Rutgers Coll. was named after him in consequence of a donation bestowed on it by him; d. 1830. had been the only medium of literary expression. The chief Russo-Turkish War. See TURKEY. characteristics of Russian as a language are simplicity, full- Rust, the name given to a disease of plants which shows ness, and naturalness. The purest and most grammatical itself on the stems and leaves of grasses and of many pastRussian is spoken in the center, about Moscow. The oldest ure or forage grasses, in brown, yellow, or orange-colored Russian grammar is that of Ludolf, (Oxford, 1696.) The be- spots, and after destroying the epidermis of the plant asginnings of Russian literature are contemporaneous with the sumes the form of a powder, which soils the fingers when introduction of Christianity in the 9th c. by the missionaries touched. R. is sometimes very injurious to crops. Cyril and Method, who employed the Old Slavic Church-edy is known for it, but it is certain that rank manures tend tongue for literary purposes. To this earliest period belongs to produce it. -besides the Prawda Ruskaja, a book on law-the noted history or chronicle of Nestorius. Then follow ballads and songs about their great hero-king, Vladimir-the Russian Charlemagne-the most celebrated of which is Igor's Expedition Against the Palowzi. Up to the commencement of the 18th c. the following names may be mentioned: The metropolitan Makarius, (d. 1564,) who wrote Lives of the Saints, etc.; Zizania, the author of a Slavic grammar, (Wilna, 1596;) and Matviejev, (17th c.) Peter the Great established schools and founded the famous St. Petersburg Academy. The first to place on a firm basis the Russian metrical system was Trediakovskij, (1703-69.) In the period that followed the death of Peter the writer that exercised the strong est influence on Russian literature was Lomonossov. Among his successors the poet Sumarokov (1718-77) did great service in the development of the Russian drama; so did Kniashnin, (1742-91,) whose pieces still keep their place on the Russian stage; while Wizin (1745-92) ranks as one of the first prose writers of his age. Some of his prose comedies are full of the most genuine humor. Other notable names in poetry, belonging in whole or in part to this period, are Cheraskov, Oserow, Prince Mikailowitch, Dolgoruki, Chvostov, Petrov, and Bogdanovicz; Berzawin was the first universally popular Russian poet. Highly valuable were the labors of the German Gerhard Friedrich Müller, a native of Westpha- Rut'gers College, New Brunswick, N. J., originated in lia, who in 1755 established at St. Petersburg the first liter- a desire to perpetuate the peculiar forms and tenets of the ary journal. A new epoch in Russian literature commenced Dutch Church. It was chartered 1766 by Gov. Franklin, of with Alexander I., who was enthusiastic in the cause of edu-N. J., and located at New Brunswick. It was closed for six cation and progress. The great ornament of Russian litera- yrs. during the Revolution. Since the close of the civil war it ture was Karamsin. Hitherto Russia had been following, has been independent of the General Synod, the property being although with a long interval, the literary development of entirely vested in the trustees. Dr. Austin Scott is now preseastern Europe; soon, however, as civilization spread, its ident. The total value of the property is $1,500,000, the writers acquired more distinctive qualities. Of these Krylof buildings including libraries and observatories. Instructors, (1763-1844) won great fame as a writer of fables, in which 28; students, over 170; library, 31,645 volumes. he satirized social faults. A greater poet was Poushkin, (1799-1837,) who while yet a national poet wrote under the influence of Byron, whose work, by the way, created more impression abroad than it did at home. Since then the most prominent contribution of Russia to modern literature has been the novel. In their works of fiction many eminent writers-Gogol, Turgenieff, Dostoievski, and Count Leo Tolstoï, to name the most eminent-have indirectly (for all direct criticism or even statement was forbidden by rigid censorship) judged the political and social conditions of their native country, and the result of this discord between the best intelligence and the severe government has been a collection of books marked by profound seriousness. The Russian novel has been almost the sole means of expression for deepseated discontent. This has given it its pessimism, while it has made it a model of earnestness and sincerity. Fifty yrs. ago, under Gogol, it began its career. Turgenieff made his Hunter's Tales almost as powerful an indictment of serfdom as was Uncle Tom's Cabin against slavery; and Tolstoï's novels and stories have taught even the ablest novel writers of other countries the methods of the real study of actual life. One great quality of modern Russian fiction has been its freedom from the conventionalities laid so heavily on the authors of the rest of Europe, and into this sole form have been compressed almost all the longings of the people for political and social advance, and thereby the Russian novel has attained its great importance in modern literature. Rus'sias, All the, the official designation of the Russian Empire in Europe was assumed in 1654, when the Czar Alexei Mikailowitch styled himself for the first time "Czar of all the Russias," after his conquest of Little Russia and the acquisition of Smolensk from Poland. Russ'naiks, also Rus'sine and Ruth'eni, the name of a variety of peoples who form a branch of the great Slavic race, and are sharply distinguished from the Muscovites, or Russians proper, by their language and entire character of life. Before the 17th c. they were a free race, but were then subjugated, partly by the Lithuanians, partly by the Poles, and for a long time belonged to the Polish kingdom. Their language has consequently become closely assimilated to the Polish. In earlier times it was a written speech. Ruth, Book of, one of the Hagiographa, placed in the A. V., as in the LXX., between Judges and Samuel; and in the Jewish canon as the second of the five Megilloth, coming after the Song of Songs. It consists of four chapters, and describes how Ruth, the Moabite widow of a Hebrew, Mahlon by name, in the time of the Judges, became-by faithful, loving adherence to her mother-in-law, Naomi, for whose sake she had left her home and kindred-the wife of Boaz, and through him the ancestress of David himself. The time of the events related mounts back to about a century before David, yet both the contents and tendency of the book show clearly enough that it was hardly written before the last yrs. of David's reign, if it was at all written in his lifetime. Ruthe'nium, a metal discovered in 1843 by Claus in the ore of platinum. In most respects, excepting in its specific gravity, it closely resembles iridium. Ruth'erford, a post borough of Bergen Co., N. J., has five churches, good schools, three newspapers, and a planing. mill, etc.; pop. 2,299. Ruth'erford, (GRIFFITH,) a pioneer settler of N. C., and brigadier-general during the Revolution; commanded at Wilmington upon its evacuation by the British; b. 1730, d. 1794. Ruth'erford, (JOHN,) statesman; U. S. senator from N. J.; was the last of those who occupied that position during the administration of Washington; b. in New York 1760, d. 1840. Ruth'erford, (SAMUEL,) an eminent Presb. divine; Principal of St. Andrews' Coll. 1649, and Commissioner to the Westminster General Assembly 1643-47; b. 1600, d. 1661. Ruth'erfurd, (LEWIS MORRIS,) an Amer. astronomer and physicist, b. at Morrisania, N. Y., 1816. Celebrated for his investigations in astronomical photography and spectroscopy. Constructed a ruling engine on which he made the first diffraction gratings of a high class, and he constructed the first photographic objective for a large telescope, and with it took photographs of the moon which have hardly been surpassed at the present day. He also photographed many star clusters, and devised a measuring-engine for determining their relative positions on the photographic plate. He took an active part in the International Meridian Conference at Washington in 1885, and was invited as one of the Amer. delegates 2244 RUTHERGLEN-RYSWICK, PEACE OF. to the International Astrophotographic Congress, at Paris, in 1887. His observatory in New York has been abandoned, and he presented its instruments to the Columbia Coll. Observatory. R. received many honors from foreign scientific societies. D. 1892. Ru'therglen, or, by popular abbreviation, RUGLEN, a royal and municipal burgh in Lanarkshire, Scotland, on the Clyde; pop. 13,361. | the largest town in the island, has 11,260 inhabitants. R. is connected with Ventnor by a railway. Rye, a sea-port of the county of Sussex, Eng. This an cient town receives historical mention as early as 893. It was walled on two sides by Edward III., and contributed nine ships to the fleet with which that monarch invaded France. Brewing, ship-building, and trade in corn, hops, etc., are carred on. R. is one of the cinque ports, and sends a member to Parliament. Pop. 8,290. Ruth'ven, Raid of, a conspiracy of note in Scottish history, contrived and executed in 1582 by William, first Rye, a genus of grasses, allied to wheat and barley, and Earl of Gowrie, father of the principal actor in the Gowrie having spikes which generally Conspiracy, in conjunction with Lord Lindsay of the Byres, consist of 2-flowered, rarely the Earl of Mar, and the Master of Glammis. The object of of 3-flowered, spikelets; the the conspirators was to obtain the control of the State by florets furnished with termiseizing the person of James VI., then a boy of 16 and under nal awns, only the upper floret the guardianship of the Duke of Lennox and Earl of Arran. stalked. One species (S. ce The king being by invitation at Gowrie's seat of Ruthven reale) is a well-known grain. Castle, the conspirators assembled 1,000 of their vassals, It has, when in fruit, a roundsurrounded the castle, and obtained complete possession of ish-quadrangular spike, with James. Arran was thrown into prison, and Lennox retired to France, where he died. Ru'tile, a mineral, which is essentially Oxide of Titanium, or Titanic Acid, although generally containing a little peroxide of iron. It is of a brown, red, or yellow color, and is found massive, disseminated, in thin laminæ, and in foursided or six-sided prisms. Rutland, a town and the county seat of Rutland Co., Vt., on Otter Creek, an important point during the "New York Controversy;" a frontier town during the Revolution, and from 1784 to 1804 one of the State capitals. The town is built largely of white marble, extensive and valuable quarries of which are found here. There are manufactories of machinery, engines, boilers, sugar-evaporators, etc. Pop. 13,000. Rut landshire, the smallest county in England, is bounded on the N.-E. by Lincoln, on the S.-E. by Northampton, and on the W. by Leicester; area 94,889 acres, pop. 20,659. Rut'ledge, (EDWARD,) statesman, b. in S. C. 1749; practiced law in Charleston; was elected to the first Continental Congress 1774; and was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence; d. 1800. Rut'ledge, (FRANCIS HUGER, D.D.,) an Amer. prelate; P. E. Bishop of Fla. 1851; b. at Charleston 1799, d. 1866. Rutledge, (JOHN,) a prominent Southern statesman of the Revolutionary era; was appointed U. S. Chief-Justice by Washington 1795; b. 1739, d. 1800. Rutu'li, a people of ancient Italy, inhabited the coast of Latium, where they built the city of Ardea. Ru'vo in Apulia, a city of southern Italy, in the prov. of Bari; pop. 15,055. Ruwenzo'ri, Mount, a lofty snow-clad peak of equatorial Africa, to the S. of Lake Albert Edward. It was ascended by Lieut. Stairs, one of Stanley's lieutenants, to a h. of 10,000 ft., although the total altitude is over 16,000 ft. Stanley identifies it as one of the MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON, (q. v.,) long famous in African geography. Ruys brock, (WILLIAM,) a Franciscan missionary sent by the pope to convert Mangu Khan to Christianity. It is supposed that Roger Bacon got his recipe for gunpowder from this man, who learned it from the Tartars. B. 1230, d. 1293. Ruys'dale, or Ruis'dael, (JAKOB,) an eminent Dutch painter, was b. at Haarlem. The date of his birth is uncertain; some make it 1625, others 1630 or 1635. It is said that there is a picture by him signed and dated 1645, which makes the last date improbable. D. 1681. Ruy'ter, Van, (MICHAEL ADRIAANSZOON,) Dutch admiral, was b. at Vlissingen in 1607, of poor parents, who sent him to sea as a cabin-boy when only 11 yrs. old. He became a warrant officer, and in 1635 rose to be a captain in the Dutch navy. After serving several yrs. in the Indian seas he was, in 1645, made rear admiral. He had his legs shattered in an engagement, and died of his wounds April, 1676. Ry'an, (STEPHEN VINCENT,) R. C. prelate, b. in Ontario Jan. 1, 1825; ordained priest in St. Louis, Mo., June 24, 1849; appointed Bishop of Buffalo, N. Y., 1868; d. April 10, 1896. Rybinsk', a district town of Great Russia, in the Govt. of Jaroslav, on the right bank of the Volga; pop. 14,600. Ryde, a watering-place in the Isle of Wight, Eng. R., Rye. a tough rachis. Its native country, as in the case of the other most important cereals, is somewhat doubtful; but it is said to be found wild in the desert regions near the Caspian Sea, and on the highest mountains of the Crimea. It has long been cultivated as a cereal plant. It delights in sandy soils. The varieties of R. are numerous. Bread made of R. is much used in the N. of Europe. It is of a dark color, more laxative than that made of wheat-flour, and, perhaps, rather less nutritious. R. is much used for fer. mentation and distillation, particularly for the making of Hollands. R. affected with ERGOT (q. v.) is a very dangerous article of food. The straw of R. is tougher than that of any other corn-plant, and is much valued for straw-plait. Rye-grass. (Lolium,) a genus of grasses, having a 2-rowed, flatly compressed spike, the spikelets appressed edgewise to the rachis. Rye'house Plot. In 1683, at the same time that a scheme was formed in England among the leading Whigs to raise the nation in arms against Charles II., a subordinate scheme was planned by a few fiercer spirits of the party, including Col. Rumsey and Lieut.-Col. Walcot, two military adventurers; Goodenough, Under-Sheriff of London; Ferguson, an Independent minister; and several attorneys, merchants, and tradesmen of London, the object of which was to waylay and assassinate the king on his return from Newmarket. The deed was to be perpetrated at a farm belonging to Rumboldt, one of the conspirators, called the Ryehouse Farm, whence the plot got its name. It was defeated. Ryer'son, (ADOLPHUS E., D.D., LL.D.,) journalist; editor of The Guardian, the organ of the Methodist Church of Canada, and Principal of Victoria Coll. 1841; Superintendent of Education for Upper Canada; b. in Canada 1803, d. 1882. Ry'mer, (THOMAS,) b. in England 1639; became historiog rapher to William III.; is chiefly remembered for a collection of documents known as R.'s Fœdera. He d. 1713. Rys brach, (MICHAEL,) a sculptor of considerable talent, b. at Antwerp in 1693, and executed numerous works, in particular the monuments to Sir Isaac Newton in Westminster Abbey and to the Duke of Marlborough at Blenheim, a bronze equestrian statue of William III. for the city of Bristol, and a colossal one of George II. for Greenwich Hospital; d. 1770. Rys'wick, (Dutch Ryswyk or Rijswijk) a village of South Holland, Netherlands, 2 m. S.-E. of The Hague; pop. about 2,900. Louis XIV. here concluded, in 1697, a treaty of peace with Holland and other Powers, in which he acknowledged William of Orange as King of Great Britain and Ireland, and restored his conquests in Catalonia and a large part of Flanders to Spain, and others on the Rhine, as well as Lorraine, to the German Empire; but Strasburg and other places in Alsace were definitively ceded to France. Ryswick, Peace of. See the preceding article. the 19th letter in the English and other Western alphabets, belongs to the dental series, and marks the fundamental sound of the hissing or sibilant group, s, z, sh, zh. The Hebrew or Phoenician character, from which the modern s is derived, was called shin-i. e., tooth, and in its original form probably resembled two or three teeth. In English s is used both for the sharp and flat sounds, as this, those thoze. The nearness of the s-sound to th is seen in the English loves-loveth, and in the phenomenon of lisping-yeth=yes. This seems to furnish the transition to the so frequent interchange of the High-German s for the Low-German /, as in German wasser=water; German fuss =fool. The substitution of r for s is noticed under R. In such cases as mell, compared with smell, pike with spike, leek with sleek, German niesen with English sneeze, it is difficult to say whether the form with or that without the s is the older. In Greek and Latin s was pronounced feebly at the end of words, and still more so between two vowels. The dropping of s is one of the ways in which the forms of modern French words have become so changed; compare Latin magister, old French maistre, modern French maitre; presbyter, prestre, prètre. Saa'di, (SHIEK MOSLIH ED-DIN,) a Persian poet, b. in Shiraz, d. 1291, aged 102, or according to some authorities still older. He ranks among the foremost writers of his country. His productions include the Gulistan ("Rose Garden,") Bostân ("Fruit Garden,") Pend Namch, ("Book of Counsels,") numerous gazels or odes, elegies, etc. Saa'dia, (BEN JOSEPH,) a Jewish writer, b. in Egypt in 892, d. in Babylonia in 941 or 942. He translated the Hebrew Scriptures into Arabic. His principal work is Religions and Doctrines, written in Arabic, now generally known under its title Emunoth vedeoth in Judah ben Tibbon's Hebrew transla tion. Saale, a river of Germany, falls into the Elbe about 25 m. above Magdeburg; it is 200 m. 1. Saarbrück, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Saar, 40 m. S.-E. of Treves; pop. 9,047. The adjoining mines produce over 60,000,000 quintals of coal annually, employing about 15,000 persons. The French, under Gen. Frossard, bombarded S. on Aug. 2, 1870; but on the 6th, while in trenched on the Spichern heights, they were defeated by the Germans. Saar'dam, a town of North Holland, at the junction of the Zaan with the Y, 5 m. N.-W. of Amsterdam; pop. about 13,000. The numerous surrounding wind-mills are used for grinding corn, and for making oil and paper. Saarlouis, a town of Rhenish Prussia. It is of considerable importance as a border fortress. There are manufactories of fire-arms in the town, and lead and iron mines in the neighborhood. S. was long in the possession of France, and was fortified by Vauban in the reign of Louis XIV. The Congress of Vienna gave it to Prussia in 1815. Pop. 6,807. Saaz, a town of Bohemia, on the river Eger. Important corn-markets are held here. Pop. 8,870. Sabadell', a rising manufacturing town of Spain, in Catalonia. Woolen and cotton fabrics are the staple manufactures. Pop. about 16,000. Sabadilla, (Asagraa officinalis, formerly Helonias officinalis,) a Mexican plant of the natural order Melanthaceae, the seeds of which are employed in medicine, because of properties analogous to those of White Hellebore. Saba'ans, the supposed descendants of one, two, or three Shebas mentioned in the Bible. Historically, the S. appear chiefly as the inhabitants of Arabia Felix, or Yemen, the prin cipal city of which was called Saba, and the queen of which is said to have visited Solomon, attracted by the fame of his wisdom. Josephus, however, makes her the Queen of Ethiopia, and the modern Abyssinians claim her as their own. Her name, according to their tradition, was Makeda. The Arabs, on the other hand, call her Balkis. The S. held the key to India, and were the intermediate factors between Egypt and Syria. Being the principal merchants of those things which the over-refined luxury of late classical times considered as absolute necessities of life, they could not fail to gather enormous riches. Their colonies must have extended over immense tracts of Asia. Commerce civilized them, and caused them to carry civilization further; and they stand out among the ancient semi-barbarous Arabs as a commonwealth of high culture. Their language is supposed to have been a Semitic (Arabic) dialect Sa baism, Za'baism, or Sabianism, the religion of the Sabæans, who are supposed to be the Sheba of the O. T. S existed in Chaldea, Arabia, Syria, and Ethiopia at an early period of the world, and consisted in the worship of the sun, moon, and stars. It was overthrown by the Mohammedan and Christian religions, but fragments of the sect remain in the so-called Christians of St. John. Saba'ra, a town of Brazil, situated on the river Velhas; pop. about 5,000. Sab'bath, (from shabbath or shaboth," to rest from labor,") the name applied to every seventh day, widely observed as a day of cessation from toil throughout the world. The Jews and one sect of Christians observe Saturday as the S., while the other Christian denominations observe the first day, or Sunday, of each week as the S. Both Jews and Christians claim special authority from the fourth commandment of the Decalogue, familiarly called the "Ten Commandments." This law was founded upon the fact that in six days the Lord made the world, and rested from his labor during the seventh day, and hence directed that each seventh day should thenceforward be observed as a holy day. The first record of its observance by the Jews is mentioned in Exod. xvi, 23-25, when, in addition to its being observed in remembrance of the original rest day of the creation, it was celebrated also in memento of the day of freedom of the Jews from Egyptian bondage. There can be no doubt about its meaning in the O. T. It is intended as a principal testimony of faith in the Creator of the universe. Hence its supreme importance. The words of the law were: "Remember the S. day to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work; but the seventh day is the S. of the Lord thy God. . . . For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day and hallowed it." See also Deut. v, 15. In conformity with the precept making it a day of "holy assembly," the synagogue assembled the faithful on that day within its precincts in every town and hamlet in and out of Palestine. A certain portion of the Pentateuch, to which afterward was added a prophetical pericope, the Haftarah, was read, translated into the vernacular, and expounded homiletically. Special prayers and psalms, in addition to the ordinary slightly modified service, with special reference to the sanctity of the S., were said and sung, and the rest of the day was devoted to pious meditation. Those who keep the first day of the week as the S. argue that there is no proof that the Jewish count actually began on the seventh from the creation; that as the Jews made it a memento of the creation and of their liberation from bondage, so Christians may well observe it weekly on the day when the resurrection of the |