SUBORDINARY-SUBSULTUS TENDINUM. though not much that is satisfactory. This country has always been famous for these attempts. Mr. J. P. Holland has built three boats, the latest of which, The Peacemaker, is apparently one of the most successful. This vessel, the invention of Mr. J. H. L. Tuck, is built of iron and steel, 1. 30 ft., w. 7 ft. 6 in., depth 6 ft. The crew consists of a pilot and an engineer. The former stands with his head in a little dome projecting a foot above the deck, from which small plate-glass windows permit him to see in every direction. Compressed air for breathing is stored in a series of reservoirs within the boat. Not the least notable feature of The Peacemaker is the "fireless engine," an invention based upon the discovery that a solution of caustic soda can be utilized under certain conditions to produce the heat necessary for generating steam. Side-rudders, or deflectors, are placed at the stern, with which, by varying their angle of inclination from a horizontal plane, the vessel is made to dive or rise to the surface of the water at pleasure. In her trials the vessel ran a distance of 2 m. without coming to the surface, and demonstrated that although submerged to a depth as great as 50 ft. it was still under perfect control of the pilot. We are not to conclude, however, from these signs of progress that the problem of submarine torpedo-boats has been solved. The employment of steam as a motor certainly suggests heat, steam, leakage through the jar of collision or of missiles, and the occupation of much space for coal and for machinery. There are three engines for different purposes in the Nordenfelt boat, when one ought to be enough for all, 2445 magna et antiqua. Thus, 30,000 sacks of wool were granted to Edward III. in 1340 in aid of the war with France. S. were granted on various occasions to James I. and Charles II. (2) The same word is used to denote money paid by one state to another in order to procure a limited succor of auxiliary troops, ships of war, or provisions. In the time of the war with the revolutionists of France and Napoleon I. Great Britain furnished S. to foreign powers to a large extent in order to engage them to resist the progress of the French. In questions regarding S. it is held that the state furnishing the succor does not thereby become the enemy of the opposite belligerent; it may remain neutral in all respects except as regards the auxiliary force supplied. In certain cases in the U. S. steam-ship companies have asked, and occasionally received, of the government special aid or remuneration in addition to the direct ordinary business receipts. Such aid is often included under the name of S. Subsist'ence of Ar'mies. This subject is one of the greatest possible importance, since on the supply of a great army with provisions depends the possibility of keeping it together. The whole of the Atlanta campaign during the civil war had for its object the cutting off of supplies from the Confederates, and in the final campaign before Richmond Gen. Grant's operations had the same end. Lee's surrender was said to have been owing to the want of provisions for his troops, while in the Franco-Prussian War Paris was taken less by force of arms than by the starvation of the defend. ing army. and the sponsons on the side are perhaps liable to injury and | apparently reduce the speed. The boat is unquestionably too slow for the counter-attack of a torpedo-launch, and would be much slower under water against a strong tide. It would be difficult to get her into action promptly, and she would usually need to be aided by darkness or fog, since her preparations for submerging are so prolonged. Subor'dinary, or Subordinate Or'dinary, in Her., a name given to a class of charges mostly formed of straight or curved lines. Suborna'tion of Per'jury, the offense of procuring another to take such a false oath as constitutes perjury in that other. Subpœ'na, in Law, means the writ or process by which the attendance of a witness in a court of justice is compelled. Subroga'tion, the substitution in the place of a creditor of another person, who becomes entitled to all the original rights and remedies against the debtor. Sub ro'sa, "under the rose," i. e., between ourselves, or in secrecy. It was customary among the ancient Germans, on occasions of festivity, to suspend a rose from the ceiling above the table as a symbol that whatever was said during the feast by those present would be kept a secret among themselves. Subscrip'tion, a definite sum of money contributed by one among many for the accomplishment of a specific object. This class of contract has been found difficult of enforcement in courts of law. Subsel'lium, or Mis'erels, seats placed in the choirs of medieval churches, turning upon hinges, so as to be used either for sitting or kneeling. They are generally specimens of exquisite carving. Sub'sidies, a term in Politics, used in two different senses: (1) It is applied in English political history to taxes levied, not immediately on property, but on persons, in respect of their reputed estates in lands or goods; or customs imposed on Subsellium. Sub'stitute, Mil'itary. In nations where conscription is resorted to for the supply of soldiers for the army the lot often falls on those unwilling to serve in person. In such a case the state sometimes agrees to accept the services of a substitute who is of equally good physique. Unless the levy be very extensive, or the term of military service very long, M. Ss. are readily found among military men who have al ready served their prescribed period. Of course the M. S. is paid for the risk he runs. Substitu'tion, one of the three principal methods employed in examining the chemical composition of organic bodies, and in tracing their relation to other compounds; the two other methods being those of oxidation and of reduction. Although the term 'is restricted to organic chemistry, the ordinary method of preparing insoluble inorganic compounds by double decomposition is in reality a case of S. of one base or one acid for another. If, for instance, solutions of nitrate of lime and sulphate of soda are mixed together the resulting compounds are sulphate of lime and nitrate of soda, in which the lime is substituted for the soda and the soda for the lime. In various organic bodies one or more atoms of hydrogen may be displaced by one or more atoms of chlorine. The new product thus formed is almost always analogous in its nature to the compound from which it is produced; thus, according as the substance acted on by the chlorine is an acid or a base the resulting product is an acid or a base, and the number of atoms is always the same in the original substance and the product. Substitu'tion, legally, is the putting one person in the place of another. The word originally belonged to the Roman civil law, and in the sense therein given to it may occur (1) in the case of a surety who pays the demand for which another person is bound; this is often called "subrogation." (2) The putting of one person in the place of another to receive a testamentary gift. In both these senses it is used theologically. Subsul'tus Ten'dinum, (Lat.,) a twitching movement of the tendons, caused by sudden momentary contractions of any of the staple commodities in addition to the costuma the muscles to which they belong. This is especially apt to show itself in the tendons about the wrist in the later stages of many low fevers. It manifests itself principally in states of great prostration, and is often associated with delirium or other signs of cerebral irritation. Subtraction, one of the four fundamental processes of arithmetic, is the diminution of a quantity by the removal of a certain portion of it. It is consequently the reverse of Addition, and determines how much of any quantity remains after a certain quantity has been taken from it. Sub'ways. The system of engineering beneath the public streets has not yet by any means reached its full development. The Metropolitan or Underground Railway of Lon-: don, opened in 1863, was the first example of its kind. The term S., however, is usually applied not to such tunneled passages for traveling but to roomy archways that will contain sewer-pipes, water-pipes, and gas-pipes. The sewers of Paris are the most elaborate examples of S. yet completed. In New York electric wires of all kinds are strung beneath the chief thoroughfares in S. Succes'sion, a law term with two quite different meanings: (1) The mode by which the members of a corporation acquire right in the property of preceding members of the same, the power of "perpetual S." being one of the attributes of a corporation. (2) The devolution of estates upon those who by natural position or will are to become the recipients of the property of the deceased, the word being used to denote the act of transmission, the right to transmit, and the estate transmitted. Succession, Presidential. See PRESIDENTIAL SUCCES SION. Succin'ic Acid derives its name from its having been originally found in amber, (Lat. succinum,) and is one of the group of dibasic acids of the oxalic acid series. S. A. occurs as a natural constituent not only in amber, but also in the resins of many of the pine tribe, in the leaves of the lettuce and wormwood, in the fluids of the hydatid cysts and hydrocele, in the parenchymatous juices of the thymus gland of the calf, and of the pancreas and thyroid gland of the ox. One of the most important points in connection with S. A. is its convertibility into tartaric acid. Suc'culent Plants are those plants remarkable for the thick and fleshy or succulent character of their stems and leaves. This character prevails in the natural orders Cactaeece, Mesembryacea, and Crassulacea, but frequently appears also in genera of other natural orders, as in aloes and some other Liliacea. It consists in a peculiar development of lular tissue. S. P. are remarkable for the small number of stomata on the green surface. They are generally found in dry climates, although some of them occur in situations where moisture is often abundant. There are S. P. in the Sahara and other deserts, and some of them form a conspicuous feature of the flora of the mountains of Europe. Sucto'ria, an obsolete name of an order of insects, containing only those forming the Linnæan genus Puler. See FLEA. Sudamʼina, (Lat. sudor, “sweat,") or Mil'iary Erup'tion, one of the diseases of the skin belonging to the class vesiculæ or vesicles. The former name is derived from the fact that the disorder is always accompanied with profuse sweating, while the latter has reference to the size of the vesicles, which do not exceed those of a millet-seed. The vesicles are most abundant on the neck and trunk, and are sometimes but not always attended with itching. They almost always occur in association with febrile disorders. The only known condition that favors their production is copious and prolonged sweating. Sudbury, a village of Middlesex Co., Mass. ; pop. 1,197. At this spot Capt. Wadsworth and 50 men were killed by the Indians in 1676. |_ Sud ́bury, a municipal borough of Suffolk, Eng., 16 m. S. of Bury St. Edmunds, on the Stour. S. was one of the towns into which the woolen manufacture was introduced by Flemings. Pop. 6,908. Sudden Death may be induced by natural or by violent causes, and the detection of the true cause is obviously of very great importance, since the acquittal or conviction of a suspected person may depend upon it. S. D. may occur naturally from syncope, (fainting or swooning,) from asphyxia, (literally pulselessness,) or, more correctly, apnæa, (privation of breath,) or from coma, (insensibility.) Syncope, or sudden cessation of the heart's action, may occur (1) by the heart losing its irritability, (or becoming paralyzed,) so that it ceases to contract; and (2) by its being affected with tonic spasm, in which it remains rigidly contracted, losing its usual alternation of relaxation. S. D. from asphyxia, or, more correctly, from apnæa, occurs when from any cause the entrance of the air into the lungs is prevented. It is not so often witnessed as a result of disease as of accident. It is sometimes caused by a spasmodic closure of the chink of the glottis. S. D. from coma is liable to occur in apoplexy and injuries of the head. In all cases of S. D. there is a strong tendency on the part of the public to suspect poisoning. The only poisons likely to operate with extreme rapidity are prussic acid or nicotina. Opium has never been known to destroy life instantaneously or within a few minutes. Su'deten-Gebirge, the most important mountain range of Germany, dividing Prussian Silesia and Lausitz from Bohemia and Moravia, and connecting the Carpathians with the cel-mountains of Franconia. The S.-G. are composed chiefly of granite, gneiss, mica-schist, and porphyry, with beds of basalt and coal, and are clothed with pines to a h. of between 2,000 and 3,000 ft. They are rich in minerals, especially in the metals, iron, lead, copper, zinc, tin, cobalt, with some silver and gold. Schneekoppe, (“Snow-peak,") in the RiesenGebirge, about 5,000 ft. h., is the culminating point in the whole range. Suchet, (LOUIS GABRIEL,) Duke of Albufera and Marshal of France, was b. at Lyons 1770. He volunteered as a private in the cavalry of the Lyons national guard in 1792, and subsequently became attached to the army of Italy. His rare intelligence and brilliant valor, displayed at Lodi, Rivoli, Castiglione, Arcola, and in numerous battles of less note, laid the foundation of his military reputation, and in 1798 he became general of brigade. S. also took a distin- | guished part in the campaigns against Austria (1805) and Prussia, (1806,) and was subsequently (1809) appointed generalissimo of the French army in Aragon. In 1812 he conquered Valencia. The five campaigns which he made in the Peninsula are considered perfect models of the kind of service he had to perform, viz., to rivet the chains of a foreign domination on the necks of a patriotic and high-spirited people. D. 1827. His son and successor in the dukedom of Albufera was a supporter of the Emperor Napoleon III. Suck'ing-fish, a name sometimes given to the Remora, and to fishes of the family Discoboli, which have a sucker formed by the union of the ventral fins, and are capable of attaching themselves by it to stones or other substances. Suck'ling, (SIR JOHN,) one of the poets of the court of Charles I.; b. at Whitton, Eng., 1608, d. about 1641. The works of S. consist of four plays, a treatise entitled An Account of Religion by Reason, a collection of Letters, and a series of miscellaneous poems. But the fame of S. rests on his songs and ballads. Sucre. See CHUQUISACA. Su'cre de Anto ́nio, (José,) a S. Amer. patriot; secured the independence of Peru and Bolivia, and was made President of the latter 1826; b. in Venezuela 1793, was assassinated in Ecuador 1830. Sudorif'ic, the medical name for a means of producing sweating; a synonym for diaphoretic. Su'dra, the name of the fourth caste of the Hindus. See CASTE. Sue, (MARIE JOSEPH EUGENE,) a well-known Fr. novelist, b. at Paris 1804. His father, Jean Joseph S., was one of the household physicians of Napoleon, and he educated his son for his own profession. S. was the author of The Mysteries of Paris, and other well-known works. D. 1857. Sue'ca, a town of Spain, in Valencia, on the Jucar; pop. 9,100. Su'et, a variety of solid fatty tissue, which accumulates in considerable quantity about the kidneys and the omentum of several domestic animals, especially the ox and sheep. Beef S. is extensively used in cookery, while purified mutton S., under the name of Sevum Præparatum, occurs in the pharmacopoeia, and is obtained by melting and straining the internal abdominal fat. Suetonius, (CAIUS TRANQUILLUS,) son of Suetonius Lenis, a tribune of the 13th legion under Otho, was b. about 72 A.D., d. 140. He is known to us chiefly as a Roman historian and miscellaneous writer. He was also, it is supposed, a teacher of grammar and rhetoric, and a composer of exercises in pleading. Sue'vi, first mentioned by Cæsar, in whose history (De Bello Gallico) the name is employed as the collective designation of a great number of Germanic peoples. They occupied a district of indefinite extent on the E. side of the Rhine, and may have been the same tribes as those subsequently known as Chatti, Longobardi, etc. The medieval Suabians were their direct descendants. SUEZ-SUEZ CANAL. Su'ez, until recently a small, ill-built town, on an angle of land near the N. extremity of the Gulf of Suez; pop. 11,175. It is walled on all sides but that toward the sea, has an indifferent harbor, but a tolerably good quay. S. of late has been greatly improved, and a R.R. connects it with Cairo. The Gulf of Suez is the W. and larger of the two branches into which the Red Sea divides toward its N. extremity, and washes on the W. coasts of Egypt, on the E. those of the 2447 commerce, and planned instead a railway from Cairo to Suez, which was opened, (1858,) and which now conveys overland the Indian and Australian mails. In 1854 a new exper imenter appeared in the person of M. de Lesseps, a member of the French diplomatic service in Egypt, who (1856) obtained from the pasha the "concession," i. e., the exclusive privilege, of forming a ship-canal from Tyneh (near the ruins of ancient Pelusium) to Suez. The peculiarity of M. de Les Sinaitic peninsula. Extreme 1. 200 m., average w. about 20 The Isthmus of Suez is a neck of land 72 m. w. at its narrowest part, extending from the Gulf of Suez on the S. to the Mediterranean on the N., and connecting the continents of Asia and Africa. The main interest that attached to this region, in recent times, was whether or not it was practicable to cut a ship-canal through the isthmus. See infra. Su'ez Canal'. It is certain that in ancient times a canal connecting, indirectly, the Mediterranean and Red Seas did exist. At what period it was constructed is not so certain. Herodotus ascribes its projection and partial execution to Pharaoh Necho, (about 600 yrs. B.C.;) Aristotle, Strabo, and Pliny less felicitously fix on the half mythical Sesostris as its originator. The honor of its completion is assigned by some to Darius, King of Persia; by others to the Ptolemies. It began about a mile and a half from Suez, and was carried in a N.-W. direction, through a remarkable series of natural depressions, to Bubastis, on the Pelusiac or E. branch of the Nile. Its entire 1. was 92 m., (of which upward of 60 were cut by human labor,) its w. from 108 to 165 ft., and its depth 15 (Pliny says 30) ft. How long it continued to be used we cannot tell, but at length it became choked up with sand, was restored by Trajan early in the 2d c. A.D., but again became unusable from the same cause, and so remained till the conquest of Egypt by Amrou, the Arab general of the Caliph Omar, who caused it to be re-opened, and named it the "Canal of the Prince of the Faithful," under which designation it continued to be employed for upward of a century, but was finally blocked up by the unconquerable sands, 767 A.D. In this condition it has ever since remained. The attention of Europe was first turned to a S. C. in modern times during the invasion of Egypt by Bonaparte, who caused the isthmus to be surveyed by a body of engineers, who arrived at the opinion that the level of the Mediterranean is 30 ft. below that of the Red Sea at Suez, an opinion which a subsequent survey proved to be erroneous. From this time the question continued to be agitated at intervals, especially by the French, and various plans were proposed, but nothing definite was arrived at till 1847, when France, England, and Austria sent out a commission to measure accurately the levels of the two seas. The commissioners, M. Talabot, Mr. Robert Stephenson, and Signor Nigrelli, ascertained that instead of a difference of 30 ft. the two seas have exactly the same mean level. The only noticeable difference was that there is a tide of 63 ft. at the one end and 1 ft. at the other. Another examination leading to similar results was made in 1853. Mr. Stephenson expressed himself very strongly against the feasibility of a canal, that is to say, a canal of such dimensions as would suit the requirements of modern seps's plan lay in this, that instead of following an oblique course and uniting his canal with the Nile, as the ancients had done, and as all the modern engineers had thought of 2448 SUFFOCATION-SUGAR AND SUGAR MANUFACTURE. execute at the two ends. In 1855 a new European commission gree of those who, by continuous contemplation and inner de- Suffocation. See ASPHYXIA and RESPIRATION. Suffragan, (Lat, suffragium, from suffragium, “a suf- Suffrage, (Lat, suffragium,) a right to vote, and more particularly the right possessed by the citizen of a state where representative government exists to vote for a member of the legislative body. In the U. S. the sole power of conferring or withholding the right of franchise belongs to the States, with the exception made by the 15th Amendment, which states that race, color, or previous servitude shall not be allowed to deprive male citizens of over 21 yrs. of age of their vote. There is great unanimity in the various States in granting the S. to all male citizens who have attained the age of 21, but a few deviations are made, some New England States requiring a literary qualification, R. I. a property qualification, and N. Y. a 30 days' previous residence in the place where the vote is registered. Su'fis, (for derivation see the next article,) a peculiar sect of Mohammedans, who claim supernatural intercourse with the Supreme Being. Said Abul Khair first gathered them into an organized body about 820, and they have numbered among them some of the most eminent Mohammedan scholars and poets. Su'fism (from sufi or sofi, Gr. sophos, "a sage; " erroneously also derived from Arab. sof or suf, "wool," and thus designating an individual who wears nothing but woolen garments) designates a certain mystic system of philosophical theology within Islam. Its devotees form a kind of ecclesiastical order somewhat similar to that of the fakirs, or dervishes, but they are mostly of a far superior stamp; and some of the greatest Persian poets, philosophers, historians, and even kings, belonged to their ranks. They assume four principal degrees of human perfection or sanctity. The first or lowest is that of the Shariat, i. e., of strict obedience to all the ritual laws of Mohammedanism, such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, almsgiving, ablutions, etc., and the ethical precepts of honesty, love of truth, and the like. The second degree (Tarikat) is not attainable by all, but only by those higher minds that, while strictly adhering to the outward or ceremonial injunctions of religion, rise to an inward perception of the mental power and virtue necessary for the nearer approach to the divinity, the necessity of and the yearning for which they feel. The third (Hakikal=truth) is the de SUGAR AND SUGAP. MANUFACTURE. in La. was only about 10,000 hogsheads. Since the war the industry has revived in La., but has not yet attained the extent which it had reached in 1860-61. The sugar estates of La. are generally located upon the Mississippi River, beginning some 60 m. below New Orleans and extending some 200 m. above. There are also many estates in the parishes or counties to the W. of the river; in fact, the greater portion of the State S. of the Red River and W. of the Mississippi is good sugar land. In the State of Tex. there are large tracts of land eminently suited to growing sugar-cane. In Fla., also, there is a large breadth of land suited by climate and soil to the culture of sugar. Beet-sugar is produced in France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Belgium, the Netherlands, and to a limited extent in Calif. The beet-sugar industry has from the first been under the patronage of government and the supervision of science. It was established by the first Napoleon in 1811, and improved methods, machinery, cultivation, and varieties have so far developed this industry that the beet is now practically the only rival of the sugar-cane in the production of sugar. In France there were produced in 1826, from beets, 1,500 tons of sugar; in 1875 there were produced 462,259 tons. At present it is estimated that half the commercial supply of sugar of the world is from beets. Of late great attention has been given in the U. S. to the production of sugar from sorghum, and in 1888 over 700,000 lbs. of sugar from this source were produced in the State of Kan. The beet-sugar industry of Europe, under the stimulus of what 2449 form cars and hauled to the mill for grinding. It is desirable that the cane be manufactured as soon after cutting as is practicable, to avoid fermentation and consequent loss of sugar, and the custom is to cut and haul enough during the day to keep the mill running day and night. The fresh juice of La. cane contains from 10 to 15 per cent. of sugar, an average of a large number of analyses giving 12.32 per cent.; but the planters seldom get much over one half this quantity, owing to the hasty and clumsy nature of the processes. It has always been by pressure that the juice is expelled from the canes; and the mill employed for this purpose is a very powerful machine with iron rollers of great weight. The canes are laid upon a continuous carrier from 50 to 150 ft. in l., and to a depth of from 6 to 12 in., according to the capacity and strength of the mill. By means of this carrier they are delivered, generally, between the rollers of the mill, being slightly pressed by one pair of rollers and heavily pressed by another pair. Sometimes before entering the rollers they pass through a shredder, by which the canes are torn in pieces, so that, as is claimed, a larger amount of juice may be expressed. The juice, which runs down in a continuous stream into a vessel prepared A Sugar Plantation in Jamaica, West Indies. operates as a bounty by the several governments, has so increased the supply as to have produced a crisis in the sugar industries of the world, and prices have reached the lowest point for a half century; but the demand also has very rapidly increased, the amount consumed per capita increasing steadily each yr. The average per capita consumption of sugar annually in the U. S. each decade since 1800 has been as follows: 1800, 9.65 lbs.; 1810, 12.64 lbs.; 1820, 10.86 lbs.; 1830, 11.91 lbs. ; 1840, 15.40 lbs. ; 1850, 18.73 lbs.; 1860, 30.18 lbs.; 1870, 28.16 lbs.; 1880, 38.28 lbs.; while in 1885, according to statistics, the per capita consumption of the U. S. was 46.6 lbs., in 1866 51.1 lbs., in 1890 54 lbs., and in 1894 66.4 lbs., besides the molasses and maple-syrup used. Manufacture. -The following are the chief processes by which sugar is produced in establishments provided with well-made machinery of the most recent kinds: Harvesting, extraction of juice, defecation, evaporation, clarification, crystallization, purging. Sugar-cane, according to variety, soil, and climate, requires from 10 to 14 months for its maturity. It therefore never fully matures in La., but when it reaches a content of sugar which will justify its manufacture, which in La. is usually from the middle of Oct. to Nov. 1, the crop is harvested. This operation consists in stripping the dead leaves from the lower and matured portions of the cane, cutting off the upper and immature part, and with a broadbladed corn-knife cutting off the stripped and topped cane at the level of the ground, piling the canes in suitable bundles for handling, which are then loaded upon mule-carts or plat to receive it, is opaque and of a yellowish-green color. About 60 lbs. of it are obtained from 100 lbs. of cane by the very efficient roller-mills now employed. There are sugar-mills of great size and power, with rollers 6 ft. 1. and 30 in. in diameter, and capable of pressing out 3,000 gallons of juice per hour. Even this magnitude has been exceeded, as the one built for the khedive at Aba el Wakf, in Upper Egypt, which has iron rollers 5 ft. 1. and 4 ft. in diameter, capable of exerting a pressure of 300 tons. Some mills have three, four, and even five rollers; the general number used is three. The juice consists of a solution of sugar and other substances which exist as impurities, besides more or less mechanical impurities which are removed by the process known as: Defecation.For this purpose the juice is pumped into large vessels, generally containing about 500 gallons each, and is heated usually by means of steam-pipes coiled over the bottom. While in the process of heating, or before the heat is applied, a quantity of slacked lime is added, with stirring sufficient to thoroughly neutralize the acid present in the fresh juice. Heat is now applied until the juice is brought near the boiling-point, when a heavy "blanket" of scum rises to the surface. The heat is now withdrawn, the scum removed, and again the juice is brought to a condition of rapid boiling, by which an additional portion of impurities are brought to the surface and removed by skimming. From the defecator the heated juice is now generally passed through filter-presses, or what are known as "bag filters," which consist of a series of bags about 4 ft. 1. and 12 to 15 in. in diameter inclosed in |