his uncle, Karl. The deposition of Sigismund gave rise to the Swedo-Polish War of Succession from 1604-60; and on the death of Karl, in 1611, his son, the great Gustavus Adolphus, found himself involved in hostilities with Russia, Poland, and Denmark. The young king soon concluded treaties of peace with his N. neighbors, and placed the internal affairs of his kingdom in order, and, although he ranks as one of the greatest military commanders of his age, the extraordinary number of benefits which he conferred on every department of the administrative system of S. entitle him to still greater renown as the benefactor of his native country. The reign of Christina was disastrous. Karl X. was occupied in generally unsuccessful wars against Poland and Denmark; while the long rule of his son, Karl XI.from 1660-97-was characterized by success abroad and in the augmentation of the regal power, which was declared by Charles XII. In 1697 the male line of the Vasas expired, and his sister and her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, were called to the throne by election. The weak Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, who was called to the throne on the death of Frederick in 1751, did little to retrieve the evil fortunes of the state; but his son, Gustavus III., (1771-92,) skillfully recovered the lost power of the crown. Gustavus IV. was forcibly deposed in 1809, and obliged to renounce the crown in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. The dominant party in S. elected Gen. Bernadotte to the rank of crown-prince, the latter assumed the reins of government, and by his steady support of the allies against the French emperor secured to S., at the Congress of Vienna, the possession of Norway, when that country was separated from Denmark. Under the administration of Bernadotte, who in 1818 succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV., the united kingdoms of S. and Norway made great advances in material prosperity, and in political and intellectual progress; and although the nation at large entertained very little personal regard for their alien sovereign, his son and successor, Oscar, (1844-59,) and his grandsons, the late king, Charles XV., and the present king, Oscar II., who came to the throne in 1872, have so identified themselves with their subjects that the Bernadotte dynasty has secured the loyal affections of every section of the united nations of S. and Norway. See NORWAY. Swe'denborg, (EMMANUEL,) b. in Stockholm 1688, and d. in London 1772. S.'s life-time divides itself into two distinct periods; the first, ending with his 55th yr., was given to business, science, and philosophy; the second, of nearly 30 yrs., was consecrated to theology and spiritualism. He published short treatises on algebra, giving the first account in Sweden of the differential and integral calculus; on a mode of finding the longitude at sea by the moon; on decimal money and measures, etc. Abandoning his desultory studies in 1724, he devoted himself for 11 yrs. to a systematic description of mining and smelting, and the construction of a theory of the origin of creation. The result appeared in 1734, in three massive folios, beautifully illustrated, entitled Opera Philosophica et Mineralia. This was followed in 1734 by a treatise on The Infinite and the Final Cause of Creation, and the Intercourse Between the Soul and the Body. His studies in human anatomy and physiology, with this end in view, appeared as Economia Regina Animalis, 1741, and as Regnum Animale, 1744. After 1744 he professed to enjoy free access to heaven and hell. In 1749 he made his first public appearance in his character of seer in the issue in London of the Arcana Calestia, completed in 1756. His life henceforward was spent between Stockholm, London, and Amsterdam, in writing and printing a variety of works in exposition of his experience and doctrines. There is little in any of these which is not comprised in the Arcana Calestia. S. made no attempt to establish a sect. When he proclaimed the Christian Church at an end, his expectation was that a new Church would be raised up among the Gentiles; but toward the close of his life he was silent as to that hope, and spent his energies in attacking Protestant theology, as if bent on the conversion of northern Europe. All his works were written in Latin, and received little attention from his contemporaries. Swedenborgians, or, as they designate themselves, "The New Church signified by the New Jerusalem in the Revelation," were first organized as a separate body in 1788 by Robert Hindmarsh, in London. In 1890 the number of its registered members in Britain was 5,000. There is a Swedenborgian Society, established in 1810, for printing and publishing S.'s works. In the U. S. the Swedenborgians are perhaps more numerous than in England. They chiefly exist in the Northern States, and their largest congregation is in Boston, Mass.

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Swedish Language and Literature. See SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Sweeps, on shipboard, are oars of great length used in large vessels during a calm, to enable the ship to obtain steerage way.

Sweet-bread, the pancreas of an animal, used as food; it is highly esteemed as being both delicate and nutritious. Sweet'meat, a general term applied to such articles of food as consist chiefly of sugar. Sweet-potato. See BATATAS.

Sweets, a term applied in England to home-made wines, for the sale of which a special license is granted. It is also a term in use for lozenges, comfits, and other preparations of sugar.

Sweet'ser, (CHARLES H.,) founded the Round Table; was one of the originators of the Evening Mail, and commenced The City 1869; b. in Mass. 1841, d. at Pilatka, Fla., 1871.

Sweet-sop, (Anona squamosa,) a fruit of the same genus with the Custard Apple. It is produced by a small bush, with lanceolate leaves, a native of the warm parts of Am., and much cultivated in Brazil, the West Indies, and generally in tropical countries. The fruit is greenish, and resembles an artichoke in size, in form, and in its scaly covering. The pulp is soft, somewhat mealy, sweet and luscious, with a musky aromatic odor and flavor. It is much used both in the East and West Indies, generally raw, but sometimes cooked. Another somewhat similar fruit is called the SOURSOP, (q. v.)

Sweet-william. See PINK.
Sweet-wood. See CASCARILLA.

Swell, in Mus., a set of pipes in an organ, with a separate key-board, and forming a separate department, which are capable of being increased or diminished in intensity of sound by the action of a pedal on a series of shades or shutters overlapping each other, within which the pipes in question are inclosed.

Swet'chine, (ANNIE SOPHIE,) a celebrated lady of Russian society; became a R. C. and removed to Paris; b. 1782, d. 1857. Her Life and Works present a vivid picture of the celebrities and events of this period.

Sweyn, or Sven, invaded England from Denmark; d. 1014, leaving his son Canute as his successor. Swietenia. See MAHOGANY.

Swift, (Sypselus,) a genus of birds of the Swallow family. The Ss. are widely distributed, and some are only found in tropical countries; others are birds of passage, and spend the summer in colder parts of the world. See SWALLOW.

Swift.

Swift, (JONATHAN,) an Eng. satirist, b. in Dublin, of English parents, 1667. He was educated at Kilkenny school and Trinity Coll., Dublin, and then removed to London, and was admitted into the house of Sir William Temple. Temple died in 1698, and S. in the following yr. published his posthumous works, after which he repaired to Ireland, and was appointed Dean of St. Patrick's. Before this he had written the most powerful satirical work of the 18th c., the Tale of a Tub, (1704,) also a few essays on ecclesiastical subjects, some ridicule of astrology under the name of "Isaac Bickerstaff," and poetical pieces possessing a peculiar vein of humor and description. He wrote papers in The Examiner, a Letter to the October Club, The Conduct of the Allies, The Barrier Treaty, and innumerable pasquinades against the Whigs. He became a formidable power in the state. His Drapier Letters (1724) produced quite a ferment in Ireland, and compelled the government to abandon a scheme for supplying Ireland with copper coinage. The triumphant author made his last visit to England in 1726, and published his Gulliver's Travels, the most popular of all his works. After this period he wrote some of his best minor pieces, The Grand Question Debated; On Poetry, a Rhapsody; The Legion Club, Verses on the Death of Dr. Swift, and The Modest Proposal. D. 1745.

Swift, (JOSEPH GARDNER, LL.D.,) an Amer. soldier, b. in Mass. 1783, d. 1868; he was the first graduate of the U. S. Military Academy, 1802; served in the War of 1812-15, and was Surveyor of the Port of New York 1818-27.

Swilly Lough, an inlet of the Atlantic on the N. coast of Ireland, in the county of Donegal, enters between Dunaff

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Head on the E. and Fanad Point on the W. It is about 25 m. in 1., and at its entrance, where it is widest, it is 3 m. w. On the E. shore is the small town of Buncrena, much resorted to for sea-bathing.

Swim'ming. The art of S. is so exceedingly useful, not only as a bracing summer exercise, but as a means of preserving life, that it should be acquired by every young person. Considering the numerous risks run by all human beings of being accidentally plunged into the water it is surprising that the art of S. does not form an essential element of education among all classes.

Swin'burne, (ALGERNON CHARLES,) an Eng. poet, b. in London 1837. He entered Oxford in 1857, but left without graduation. His first literary venture, in 1861, was two plays, "The Queen Mother" and "Rosamund," which attracted little attention; but "Atalanta in Calydon," in 1865, at once established his reputation. The chief poetical works of S., published subsequently, are Chastelard, Poems and Ballads, A Song of Italy, Songs Before Sunrise, Bothwell, etc.

Swinémün'de, a town of Prussia, in the prov. of Pomerania, on the island of Usedom, at the entrance of the narrow channel of Swine; pop. 6,850. S. is noted for its excellent sea-bathing, for which it is much frequented. The light-house of S. is one of the loftiest in the world, being 210 ft. h.

Swing, a cognomen assumed by senders of threatening letters during the period when the irritation of the agricultural laborers of England against their employers was at its height, viz., from 1830 to 1833.

Swin'ton, (JOHN,) b. in Ill., Dec., 1830; early learned the printer's trade; moved to New York about 1850; studied medicine and law; was chief of editorial staff of the Times from 1860 through the war, and till Raymond's death in 1869; then with Horace Greeley on the Tribune until about 1874; then chief of staff of the Sun until 1883, when he resigned to start John Swinton's Paper; in the spring of 1874 became the active champion of workingmen; that fall was nominated with great enthusiasm by them for Mayor of New York, but polled only 200 votes; took active part as public speaker, writer, and worker in all the movements of labor in New York since 1874. His paper was discontinued in Aug., 1887. Swir River, in the Govt. of Olonetz, Russia, connects Lakes Ladoga and Onega; 130 m. 1.

Swiss Guards, troops employed at European courts as body-guards and for palace service. They originated in the 15th c., and have generally proved their fidelity to the various potentates who have had them in their pay.

Swiss helm, (JANE G. C.,) an Amer. author, b. in Pa. 1816, d. 1884; editor of the Pittsburg Saturday Visitor 1845-56; St. Cloud, Minn., Visitor, and St. Cloud Democrat 1858. She was author of Letters to Country Girls, etc.

Swith in, Saint, an Eng. ecclesiastic of the 9th c., who was chaplain to King Egbert, and tutor to his son, Ethelwulf, under whom, when he came to his throne, he held the office of chancellor. He had charge of the education of King Alfred, whom he accompanied to Rome. In 852 he was consecrated Bishop of Winchester. The origin of the tribute called "l'eter-pence" has been often assigned to S., and he is said to have procured an act of the Witenagemote enforcing for the first time the universal obligation of paying tithes. S. d. 862; a century later he was canonized. Switz'erland, (Ger. Schweiz, Fr. Suisse, Ital. Svizzera,) an inland country of Europe, situated between 45° 48' to 47° 49' N. lat., and 5° 55' to 10° 36' E. long. Its greatest 1. from E. to W. is 180 m., and its greatest w. from N. to S. 160 m. Its superficial area, including lakes, is 15,976 sq. m.; pop. 2,917,754. Topography.S. is the most mountainous country of Europe. Its principal chains are the Alps and the Jura. The former run from E. to W. along its S. or Italian frontier, and their ramifications fill more than one half of the country. Arms of Switzerland. The mean elevation of the highest chain

is from 8,000 to 9,000 ft. The Jura run N.-E. from the W. corner of S. They consist of a series of parallel ridges, and their mean elevation does not exceed 4,000 ft. In S. the climate chiefly varies with elevation above the sea-level. At a h. exceeding 9,000 ft. the mountains are covered with perpetual snow, which descends along the hollows in glaciers to a much lower level. Productions.-In S., where good coal is not to be had, and where the houses are built of wood, the forests acquire very great importance. Wood-cutting is one

of the chief employments of the people. It is, however, the mountain pastures and the meadows, forming two fifths of the whole surface of the country, that supply the chief occupations of the people-those of herdsmen and shepherds. Some districts are very fruitful, yet the grain raised is inadequate for home consumption. The vine is cultivated on the slopes of the Jura and in the valleys of the Rhine, Rhone, Reuss, Limmat, and Thur, and in some places ripens at 2,000 ft. above the sea. The annual production of wine is valued at about $6,000,000. Flax and hemp are extensively grown. The forests cover about 17 per cent. of the soil, and,

although imperfectly cultivated, the production of timber exceeds the home consumption. Fishing is extensive, but hunting has fallen off, and in some of the cantons it is prohibited. Chamois are still found in the Alps; other animals are bears, wolves, wild boars, and roebucks; foxes and hares abound, and otters are found in some of the lakes. Switzerland is celebrated for rich and excellent pastures; the finest breeds of cattle are those of the Simmenthal and Saanen, (Bern,) Gruyère, (Fribourg,) Zug, and Schwytz. The best cheese is made in Gruyère and Urseren, (Uri,) and in the valleys of the Emmen, Saane, and Simmen. The chief seats of the cotton manufacture are in Aargau, Appenzell, St. Gall, Zug, and Zurich; of silks in Basel and Zurich; and of watches in Berne, Geneva, Neufchâtel, Solothurn, and Vaud. Railways, Telegraphs, and Post-offices.-There are 3,091 kilometers of R.R.; 815 post-offices and 2,248 letter-boxes; and there are 7,114 kilometers of telegraphs. Government, etc.-Hitherto the Swiss have been very much split into distinct communities by the great mountain chains which separate the cantons. One of the results has been the weakness of the central power. Each valley has been intrusted with the making of its own laws and the manage ment of its own local affairs. The cantons are divided into two classes, absolute democracies and representative democracies. In the former the chief power belongs to the Landesgemeinde, an assembly of the whole adult male population which meets once a yr. Uri, the Unterwaldens, Appenzell, and Glarus have constitutions of this kind. In the other, the representative cantons, a great council is elected by the people, and to it are deputed most of the powers of the Landesgemeinde. The present constitution dates from 1874. It handed over the control of the army, the conduct of foreign affairs, the settlement of disputes between the cantons, and the management of the police and post-office to a federal assembly (Bundes Versammlung) representing all the cantons. The assembly consists of two chambers-the State Council, (Stande Rath,) and the National Council, (National Rath.) There is no standing army in S., but every citizen is obliged to serve as a soldier, and military drill is taught at all the schools. Education,-Of every 1,000 Swiss 702 speak German, 226 French, 55 Italian, and 17 Romansch. In no country is elementary instruction more widely diffused. Parents are compelled to send their chil. dren to school, or have them privately taught, from 6 to 12. There are universities on the German model at Basel, Berne, and Zurich, and academies on the French plan at Geneva and Lausanne. Finances. The public revenue is derived mainly from customs. Revenue, 61,391,000 francs; expen diture, 61,506,000 francs; imports, 827,078,595 francs; exports, 673,060,648 francs; public debt, 30,572,000 francs. History.-S. was in Roman times inhabited by two racesthe Helvetii, supposed to have been Celts, on the N.-W., the Rhætians on the S.-E. After the conquest of Gaul both races adopted the language and habits of Rome. When the invasions took place the Burgundians settled in western S., while the Alemanni, another Germanic tribe, took possession of the country E. of the river Aar. A third

and