- Pigeon i gozal—may be understood as a young bird of the dove kind. According to a general rule the young were required in preference to the old on all occasions of sacrificial oblation.

10. Divided them in the midst.'-This very solemn form of ratifying a covenant is again particularly mentioned in Jer. xxxiv. 18. It consisted in cutting the throat of the victim, and pouring out its blood. The carcase was then divided, lengthwise, as nearly as possible into two equal parts, which being placed opposite to each other at a short distance, the covenanting parties approached at the opposite ends of the passage thus formed, and meeting in the middle, took the customary oath. The practice was by no means peculiar to the Hebrews. Traces of it may be found in the Greek and Roman writers, and in the accounts of travellers.

17, 18. A burning lamp that passed between the pieces.' In the same day the Lord made a covenant with Abram.'In formerly attending to this text, we illustrated it by reference to the customs of ancient nations, not being then aware that although it had disappeared from Western Asia, it was still preserved in the farther East. It is to the Oriental Illustrations of Mr. Roberts that we are indebted for the information that in India a burning lamp or fire is still used for the confirmation of a covenant. Should a person in the evening make a solemn promise to perform something for another, and should the latter doubt his word, the former will say, pointing to the flame of the lamp, that is the witness.' On occasions of greater importance, when two or more join in a covenant, should the fidelity of any be questioned, they will say, ' We invoke the lamp of the temple' (as a witness). When an agree ment of this kind has been broken, it will be said, who would have thought this? for the lamp of the temple was invoked.'

18. From the river of Egypt unto.... the river Euphrates.'-This passage has been referred to by some writers as one that could only have been penned during the most splendid period of Jewish history-the reigns of David and Solomon. Literally taken, however, the remark is inapplicable to any time, since the kingdom of the Hebrews at no period of their history extended so far; and the promise must therefore be taken in a rhetorical sense, describing the central point of the proper country as situated between the two rivers. So Havernick, in his art. GENESIS, in the Cyclop. of Biblical Literature: and it is a sufficient answer to the objection, and also obviates the painful difficulty which some pious writers have felt themselves under in making out that this promise ever was fulfilled in its literal extent, which has been so great, that the non-fulfillment has been used as an argument in proof of the future restoration of the Jews to Palestine, when their empire shall be extended to these boundaries: see Keith's Land of Israel, for instance, which proceeds on this notion. In the above explanation Havernick concedes that the river of Egypt' means the Nile; and as the point is questioned, it is better to make this admission, and take this broad view of the case, than to make the point turn upon a small controversy about the river of Egypt.' As a matter of fact, however, it is right that we should, for ourselves, record our disbelief that this term does denote the Nile. All Hebrew scholars know that the Nile is distinguished in Scripture by the peculiar word jeor, an Egyptian word signifying a fosse or river, and by the Egyptians themselves applied to the Nile. In the dialect of Memphis it occurs in the shape of IORO, in that of Thebes of IERO, and in the Rosetta inscription as IOR. In the Bible this word is never applied to any other river than the Nile, except in Dan. xii. 5, 6, 7, where it refers to the Tigris. In the texts where it occurs it is translated the river, and the context shows the Nile to be intended. When it occurs in connection with the name of Egypt (Amos viii. 8; ix. 5), our translators, anxious to mark the distinction between the words and those which they, in the present text and elsewhere render by the river of Egypt,' translate the flood of Egypt.' In all the places which

they translate 'river of Egypt,' the word is not that thus appropriated to the Nile, but nahar, which is the ordinary name for any stream or river; and as there is a special word for the Nile, and as the common word nahar is never but once (Isa. xix. 5) used in any text where the context points to the Nile, it is reasonable to infer that in the phrase river of Egypt,' some other stream is denoted. It might be rendered the brook towards Egypt,' meaning the well-known boundary brook in the direction of Egypt; and we see no reason to dissent from the opinion which identifies it with the Wady el Arish, near the village of that name, which occupies the site of the ancient Rhinocorura. The great river, Euphrates.'-(See note on chap. ii. 14.) This noble stream is frequently mentioned as the great river' in the Scriptures, and it is fully entitled to such a distinction. It rises in two widely-separated sources, one in the elevated region near Erzerum, and the other near the town of Bayazid on the Persian frontier. The former takes immediately the name of Frat,' and its course is nearly south-west; the other, called Murad,' has a course less southwardly than the other, and is much the nobler stream of the two. Their junction takes place in the re

cesses of the Taurus, near the town of Kebban. After having pierced the mountains, the river continues its southwesterly course as if towards the Mediterranean; but, being repelled by the mountains near Samosata, it makes a slight inclination to the south-east, and afterwards more decidedly takes that direction, and pursues it until it ultimately joins the Tigris at Kornah in Irak Arabi. The united stream then takes the name of Shat-ul-Arab, or River of the Arabs; and finally enters the Persian Gulf above seventy miles below the city of Basrah. The total course of this fine river is estimated at 1400 miles. Its breadth from Bir to its junction with the Tigris varies from 300 to 450 yards, though it is occasionally less than 200; and at times, where islands occur in the mid-stream, widens to 800 yards, or even three-quarters of a mile. Its stream flows at the rate of five miles an hour in the season of flood, but at other times it is rather under than above three miles an hour in much the larger portion of its course. The rise of the Euphrates begins in March and continues to the beginning of June, at which time there is nowhere less than 12 feet depth of water, or, as some say, 16 feet. In the low season the general depth of the river, with the exception of fords and rocks, may be stated at from 6 to 10 feet. In describing the average depth of water, the natives are accustomed to say that it is equal to the height of two men. In many parts, however, the depth of water is 18 feet, even in the low season. It is never│ more than 150 miles distant from the Tigris, and at a short distance below Bagdad the two rivers approach so near as 20 miles to each other. The Euphrates seems the nobler stream of the two; but it does not appear in fact to have a larger, if so large, a body of water as the Tigris. Both rivers are subject to great inundations in the spring; but that of the Tigris begins some weeks earlier than the other, in consequence of the more southern exposure of its source, and the earlier melting of the snows. When the Euphrates is at its height, it overflows the surrounding country; and its waters, filling canals dug for the purpose, tend greatly to facilitate the labours of agriculture in those parts of its lower banks which are under cultivation. In some parts | extensive marshes are formed by this inundation. The water is lowest in the months of November, December, January, and February; but sometimes there is a slight increase from rain in January. The river is navigable from Bir, though in some places obstructed by rocks; and from the attempt which has lately been made by England to ascertain the practicability of a steam-communication with India by that river, some very important consequences may eventually arise. The disturbed state of the country prevents any navigation of the river by the natives higher than Hillah, near the site of Babylon. There is much valuable information concerning the Euphrates in the Report of the Select Committee on Steam-Navigation to India'

19. Kenites-Kenizzites-Kadmonites,' etc.-Ten na

Now Sarai Abram's wife bare him no children: and she had an handmaid, an Egyptian, whose name was Hagar.

2 And Sarai said unto Abram, Behold now, the LORD hath restrained me from bearing: I pray thee, go in unto my maid; it may be that I may 'obtain children by her. And Abram hearkened to the voice of Sarai.

3 And Sarai Abram's wife took Hagar her maid the Egyptian, after Abram had dwelt ten years in the land of Canaan, and gave her to her husband Abram to be his wife.

4 ¶ And he went in unto Hagar, and she conceived: and when she saw that she had conceived, her mistress was despised in her eyes.

5 And Sarai said unto Abram, My wrong be upon thee: I have given my maid into thy and when she saw that she had conbosom ; ceived, I was despised in her eyes: the LORD judge between me and thee.

6 But Abram said unto Sarai, Behold, thy maid is in thy hand; do to her as it pleaseth thee. And when Sarai 'dealt hardly with her, she fled from her face.

7 And the angel of the LORD found her

1 Heb. be builded by her.
5 Chap. 25. 18.

2 Heb. that which is good in thine 6 Chap. 24. 62.

others. The three not included in the subsequent list are those named above. We know nothing with certainty of their origin or geographical position.

by a fountain of water in the wilderness, by the fountain in the way to Shur.

8 And he said, Hagar, Sarai's maid, whence camest thou? and whither wilt thou go? And she said, I flee from the face of my mistress Sarai.

9 And the angel of the LORD said unto her, Return to thy mistress, and submit thyself under her hands.

10 And the angel of the LORD said unto her, I will multiply thy seed exceedingly, that it shall not be numbered for multitude.

11 And the angel of the LORD said unto her, Behold, thou art with child, and shalt bear a son, and shalt call his name 'Ishmael; because the LORD hath heard thy affliction.

12 And he will be a wild inan; his hand will be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren.

13 And she called the name of the LORD that spake unto her, Thou God seest me: for she said, Have I also here looked after him that seeth me?

6

Verse 1. She had an handmaid'-a female slave; apparently one of those 'maid-servants' whom Abraham had brought from Egypt. The female slaves among the Jews, as they are still in the East, are wholly under the control of the mistress of the family.

3. To be his wife.'-The term 'wife,' in the present instance, can only be understood to describe a wife of a secondary and inferior class. Such women were considered wives, inasmuch as the connection was legal and customary; but the absence of certain solemnities and contracts of dowry marked the condition as inferior, although not in itself degrading. The children from such unions did not inherit the property of the father, who usually provided for them in his own life-time, if he had sons by the principal wife or wives to claim the inheritance. We thus find Abraham providing for the sons of his concubines Hagar and Keturah. Things are still much the same in the East, where similar practices are legalized by the Mohammedan law. That law allows a man four wives of the first class, and does not restrict him as to slaves. But the condition

of a slave is not altered, as such, by the manner in which she lives in the family of her master. The sweeper of his house and the partner of his bed are alike liable to be sold again if they have been purchased; but delicacy prevents this right from being often exercised. (See Malcolm's History of Persia.) So we see that Hagar remained a 'bondwoman' after she had become the mother of Ishmael, and Sarai is still called her mistress.'

6

6

7. Angel.'-An angel is here mentioned for the first time. Our word is from the Greek áyyeλos, angelos; the Hebrew is malach; both words denoting simply ‘a messenger.' The term is used very indefinitely in the Scriptures, indicating sometimes the Deity himself, his providence, and the impersonal agents of his will. At other times it denotes the class of superior beings to whom we restrict the name of 'angels.' In many places it is applied to prophets and holy men acting under divine direction, or in the service of religion; and it is also extended to the ministers and agencies of the devil. Maimonides and some

57

other Jewish writers apprehend that this was a commissioned prophet who spoke to Hagar; but the expressions in vv. 13, 14, cannot be made compatible with the idea of human agency.

Shur.-This was a city upon the confines of Egypt and Palestine, as appears by a comparison of this with the following texts,-Gen. xx. 1; xxv. 18; 1 Sam. xv. 5; xxvii. 8. Josephus makes it the same as Pelusium (Antiq. vi. 7. 3; comp. 1 Sam. xv. 7); but that city was known to the Israelites by the name of Sin. Shur was more probably in the neighbourhood marked by the modern Suez. The desert which extended from Palestine to Shur is called 'the wilderness of Shur' in Exod. xv. 22; but in Num. xxxiii. 8, it has the name of the wilderness of Etham.' 11. Call his name Ishmael '-This is the first instance of a name given by divine direction before birth. Many such instances occur hereafter. Like all other Hebrew names, they are significant, and commonly refer to some characterizing circumstance or quality of mind or person. For the sake of obtaining such significance, names were sometimes changed among the Hebrews and other Oriental nations, as we shall have other occasions to observe. In the present instance, the name Ishmael is composed of two Hebrew words which, in combination, denote God attends' or 'hears.' The reason of this denomination is given in the text.

12. A wild man.'-The original has here a force which is lost in the translation. The word rendered wild ( pere) in every other passage where it occurs denotes a wild ass. (See Fürst's Hebrew Concordance.) It is, therefore, obviously intended by the use of so unusual a phrase, which may be rendered 'a wild ass man,' to indicate an analogy between the wildness of Ishmael and his descendants and that of the wild ass. Now, if we turn to Job xxxix. 5-8, we find a splendid description of the habits of the wild ass; and it is equally curious and surprising to trace there how minutely the description applies to the free, wandering, lawless, pastoral, marauding, town-hating Bedouins, the descent of some of whose tribes from Ishmael is admitted by others, and gloried in by themselves. For an explana

tion of how far the Arabians are to be considered the descendants of Ishmael, see note on ch. xxv. 12-16. Even in the ordinary sense of the epithet 'wild,' there is no people to whom it can be applied with more propriety than to the Arabs, whether used in reference to their character, modes of life, or place of habitation. We have seen something of Arabs and their life, and have always felt the word wild to be precisely that by which we should choose to characterize them. Their chosen dwelling-place is the inhospitable desert, which offers no attractions to any eyes but theirs, but which is all the dearer to them for that very desolation, inasmuch as it secures to them the independence and unfettered liberty of action which constitute the charm of their existence, and which render the minute boundaries and demarcations of settled districts, and the restraints and limitations of towns and cities, perfectly hateful in their sight. The simplicity of their tented habitations, their dress, and their diet, which form so perfect a picture of primitive usages as described by the sacred writers, we can also characterize by no more fitting epithet than wild;' and that epithet claims a still more definite application when we come to examine their continual wanderings with their flocks and herds, their constant readiness for action, and their frequent predatory and aggressive excursions against strangers or against each other. But this point resolves itself into the ensuing clause :

"His hand will be against every man, and every man's hand against him.'-This, like the other passages in reference to Ishmael, are understood to apply equally to characterize his descendants. There is indeed no people to whom this attaches with greater truth than to the Arabs; for there is none to whom aggression on all the world has so remarkably become a condition of existence. Enjoying, as they do, the freedom and desolate grandeur of their de sert patrimony, they are not insensible to some of the advantages which have been withheld from them; and they think it but fair and reasonable that they should obtain, by violence, a share in the wealth and fertility of the world. Hence plunder forms their principal occupation, and takes the chief place in their thoughts; and their

aggressions upon settled districts, upon travellers, and even upon other tribes of their own people, are undertaken and prosecuted with a feeling that they have a right to what they seek, and therefore without the least sense of guilt or degradation. Indeed, the character of a successful and enterprising robber, invests a Bedouin with as high a distinction in his own eyes and in the eyes of his people, as the most daring and chivalrous deeds could win among the nations of Europe. The operation of this principle would alone suffice to verify the prediction of the text. But besides this, causes of variance are continually arising between the different tribes. Burckhardt assures us that there are few tribes which are ever in a state of perfect peace with all their neighbours, and adds, that he could not recollect this to be the case with any one among the numerous tribes with which he was acquainted. Their wars, however, are seldom of long duration; peace is easily made, but broken again upon the slightest pretence.

He shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren.'— Literally before,' or 'over against the faces of all his brethren.' This text has been differently understood. Some think it denotes that Ishmael's inheritance should not be distant from that of his brethren: understanding not only his natural brethren, the sons of Abraham by Sarah and Keturah, but his maternal brethren (nationally understood) the Egyptians. This was the fact. understand it to refer to the practice among the Arabs, for related clans to keep as much as possible together, in cer

Others

tain districts; where they apprehend that their aggressions on others may provoke strong measures of retaliation. There are some, however, who confine the passage to Ishmael individually, and understand it to signify that he would be of such a mounting spirit, and would acquire such consideration that, according to a very ancient and still existing custom, wherever he went he would be in a condition to expect, or insist, that the tents of his neighbours and people should be turned with their faces towards his own, in token of submission and of readiness to watch his will. In ch. xxv. 18, it is said that he died in the presence of all his brethren;' and as, in the chapter preceding that, we find him present with Isaac at the interment of Abraham, it is, after all, possible that text indicates no more than that he would not go to settle in remote countries, but would live among or near those with whom he was connected by the ties of nature. There are, however, good authorities for each of the other opinions.

13. And she called,' etc.-The custom of naming places from circumstances which occurred at or near them, would appear to have been very common, not only among the Hebrews, but in all countries. The practice still prevails. Our geographical nomenclature abounds in such names; and a large proportion of the denominations imposed by recent discoverers are of this character. It seems, from the sequel, that Hagar followed the directions of the angel, and returned to her mistress.

CHAPTER XVII.

1 God reneweth the covenant. 5 Abram his name is changed in token of a greater blessing. 10 Circumcision is instituted. 15 Sarai her name is changed, and she blessed. 16 Isaac is promised. 23 Abraham and Ishmael are circumcised.

AND when Abram was ninety years old and nine, the LORD appeared to Abram, and said unto him, I am the Almighty God; 'walk before me, and be thou 'perfect.

2 And I will make my covenant between me and thee, and will multiply thee exceedingly. 3 And Abram fell on his face and God talked with him, saying,

4 As for me, behold, my covenant is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many

nations.

5¶ Neither shall thy name any more be called Abram, but thy name shall be Abraham; *for a father of many nations have I made thee.

6 And I will make thee exceeding fruitful, and I will make nations of thee, and kings shall come out of thee.

7 And I will establish my covenant between me and thee and thy seed after thee in their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be a God unto thee, and to thy seed after thee.

8 And I will give unto thee, and to thy seed after thee, the land wherein thou art a stranger, all the land of Canaan, for an everlasting possession; and I will be their God.

9 And God said unto Abraham, Thou

1 Chap. 5. 22.

shalt keep my covenant therefore, thou, and thy seed after thee in their generations.

10 This is my covenant, which ye shall keep, between me and you and thy seed after thee; "Every man child among you shall be circumcised.

11 And ye shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be 'a token of the covenant betwixt me and you.

12 And he that is eight days old 'shall be circumcised among you, every man child in your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any stranger, which is not of thy seed.

13 He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought with thy money, must needs be circumcised and my covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant.

14 And the uncircumcised man child whose flesh of his foreskin is not circumcised, that soul shall be cut off from his people; he hath broken my covenant.

15 And God said unto Abraham, As for Sarai thy wife, thou shalt not call her name Sarai, but Sarah shall her name be.

16 And I will bless her, and give thee a son also of her: yea, I will bless her, and she shall be a mother of nations; kings of people shall be of her.

17 Then Abraham fell upon his face, and laughed, and said in his heart, Shall a child be born unto him that is an hundred years 4 Rom. 4. 17. 5 Heb. of thy sojournings. 6 Acts 7. 8. 10 feb. she shall become nations.

7 Acts 7. 8. Rom. 4. 11,

Luke 2. 21. John 7. 22.