"Then, in such hour of need Of your fainting, dispirited race, Ye alight in our van! At your voice, Ye move through the ranks, recall The Contemporary Review. Eyes rekindling, and prayers, Applying that inspired utterance to the more precise matters of political strife, it may be said that in the struggle that lies before the Liberal Party the most essential need is strong leadership. With such leadership-and there are men in the present Cabinet who are able to give it-who can doubt that we shall not merely survive, but conquer? Harold Spender. THE CHINESE DRAMA, YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY. "Once upon a time, so long ago that even the Chinese were a young people, there lived in the far west of the Middle Kingdom a Herdsman and a Spinning Maiden. And the love which each bore for the other was so deep and steadfast that Kwanyin, the Merciful Goddess, looked down from High Heaven in compassion of their love. For so soon as the span of their earthly life was closed she bore them to the heavens and set each in an island of the Silver River (which we moderns call the 'Milky Way'). And the Merciful One decreed that once in every seven years all the magpies in the world should assemble and, with outspread wings, should link island to island that the lovers might meet in renewal of their undying vows." I. Immortal as the love of the Herdsman and the Spinning Damsel is the legend itself. Today in China no selfrespecting theatrical company would omit to include a variant in its repertoire. It is to be witnessed in the great modern theatres in Shanghai; on the rustic stage of a country village; in the puppet-show at the street-corner; and I have heard it sung by itinerant musicians far up the Yangtsze River. For, indirectly, here lies the origin of the Chinese Drama. And if the next link in the chain is not historically so strong as it might be, at least the story will serve for its romance. Perhaps the best trait in the character of the Emperor Huan Tsung (A. D. 753) was his affection for the Princess Yang Kueifei, the lady whom he made his wife. And the story runs that she declared her love one evening as they stood upon the Magpie Bridge (so-called) in the gardens of the Imperial Palace. The Princess, moved by tender recollections of the old legend-for it was the festival night of the anniversary-protested that she, at least, would be even more faithful in her love than was the Spinning Maiden. So enchanting did she appear to him that the Emperor promptly offered his hand, heart and throne; which were as promptly accepted. Now Huan took counsel with his Prime Minister how he might devise some particularly ingenious and novel form of entertainment with which to please his bride. "Let us collect," said the Premier, "some of the noblest and most graceful of the youths about the Court. We will dress them in becoming robes, and I will search the historical records and instruct them how to recite the narra tives of the illustrious deeds of your Majesty's Imperial ancestors." The entertainment was duly "presented" in a gorgeous pavilion amidst blossoming fruit-trees, and was, needless to remark, an instantaneous success. In fact, so successful was it that the Emperor decreed the institution of a Guild, or College of Dramatic Art, and named it "The Guild of the Young Folks of the Pear Garden." For his reward the Minister was thereafter able to boast that his great-grandfather had been ennobled. Some authorities declare that the origin of the Chinese Drama is to be found in the marionette-shows which are so popular throughout China. Incidentally, it may be remarked that a variant of our own "Punch and Judy" show, but without dog Toby, is constantly to be met with in China, not only in the large towns, but in country districts. But "The Young Folks of the Pear Garden" did in reality exist, and the term is still sometimes applied to actor folk. Unfortunately, it must be recorded that the Young Folks have sadly degenerated, until to-day the calling is regarded as the most contemptible one a man can follow. And at once we meet with the inevitable paradox-inevitable when things are treated of. For the Drama is not only one of the most interesting and outstanding features in the social life of the Chinese, it is also preeminently the one form of national amusement. Curious that the subject has been almost entirely neglected by those who set out to record their impressions of economic conditions which obtain amongst that most fascinating race. From the earliest records we read that dancing and singing by trained performers were exceedingly popular; and it must be remembered that the Historical Record dates from 2698 B. C. But it was not until A. D. 1250 that the real Drama began to flourish. Practically contemporaneous with our own first Shakespearean productions a collection of one hundred plays, dealing with the period of the Mongol Emperors, was published in China; and in 1845 we have another collection catalogued under no fewer than sixty headings. Any attempt to institute comparisons between the Chinese Drama and that of other countries is well-nigh as futile as to hope to describe the Chinese people by means of a reference to such characteristics as are well known attributes of other Eastern nations. To say, for instance, that the Drama in China is as important a feature of the national life as it was in ancient Greece is to convey a very inadequate conception of the hold which it retains over all classes in the Empire, and of its power as an educational force. Its use in connection with religious rites and observances may be comparatively infrequent, and yet it is something more than the chief form of amusement. In making a comparison with the Greek Drama, to which it is in several ways analogous, one most important point of difference, in the treatment of religion, may be briefly noted-and the remark applies equally to the literature of the two nations. The Greak Drama contains many passages wherein the gods were introduced upon the stage and not infrequently exposed to possible ridicule for their moral failings. In the large number of plays dealing with mythological subjects which I chance to have seen in China the treatment has been entirely free from any suggestion of levity. Indeed, such methods would be in direct contra vention to the doctrines of Confucius, and so incomprehensible to a people who owe their existence throughout the ages as a great nation to their reliance upon oral, as opposed to physical, forces. On the other hand, a form of drama based upon the lines of the medieval mystery play would be equally incomprehensible to the Chinese mind owing to the nature of his religion, of which his conception is as vague as are his ideas of details of European civilization. There is, however, one point of strong resemblance between the Chinese and Greek Dramas, in that both are essentially lyrical. In moments of strong emotion music in some form or other is added to the spoken word, the actor in many cases breaking into song; and the orchestra, as every tourist knows, is by no means the least important factor in a Chinese theatre. Beyond this bare fact it is almost impossible to speak with any certainty of the value of the old Chinese dramas as literature. Even so eminent an authority upon things Chinese as Dr. Arthur H. Smith confesses with regret his inability to speak from first hand knowledge owing to the unintelligible dialect adopted by the actors and the inordinate length of the plays.1 This, however, as will presently appear, is subject to modification in the drama of to-day. At this point it may be well to indicate the precise significance of the title of this paper, to distinguish between "yesterday" and to-day" as applied to the Chinese Drama. Throughout China, in every district untouched by the advent of Western civilization, one may witness theatrical representations performed under the exact conditions which have obtained for centuries past. Just as one may set foot 1 I venture to think that Dr. Smith is in error in attributing such length to the Chinese Historical dramas. The fallacy is a common one, and arises from the fact that instead of one long play lasting for several days, a company will perform a series of short one-act incidents. The treatment of these is so similar that the foreign spectator may readily be excused for imagining them to be one continuous drama. within the walls of a native city and Before we consider the effects which Western civilization has had upon the Stage in China, it will be of interest to indicate, however briefly, the part played by the Drama in the national life and the nature of the productions outside the spheres of European influence in other words, the "Drama of Yesterday." The theatre, then, is pre-eminently the national form of amusement and recreation, whether the stage is one of the most modern type, or whether it is no more than a "fit-up" in a remote country village. Where cheap reprints of works of fiction, an "Everyman's Library," or even news-sheets are unknown, the Stage has been practically the current literature of the Chinese. Through its medium are taught the life-stories of men and women famous in the Empire's history; Emperors, statesmen and soldiers once again make their great speeches or fight their mighty battles for the pleasure of the "learned scholar or the illiterate rustic." Chinese history, surely one of the most absorbing in the stories of the nations-and yet practically unknown save to a small circle of students-is rich in dramatic incidents which capable of vivid reenactment in the theatre. And yet, as a distinguished writer has pointed out, "The representation of historical events, by Chinese theatres, may be said to be one of the greatest obstacles to the acquisition of historical knowl are edge by the people." The reason for this seeming paradox is doubtless to be found in the fact that the plays do not necessarily deal with the incidents from an historically accurate standpoint, but rather from a sense of dramatic effect. For instance, in one well-known and popular play, "The Golden-Leafed Chrysanthemum," there occurs the curious anachronism of an invading army halting at its enemies' frontiers to wait until the general who is to defeat them shall be born and grow up. It remains, however, that the historical play is first favorite with the Chinese; a fact which, after all, is but in harmony with the Chinese reverence for the classics and the antique in every shape and form, whether their own ancestors or a piece of Ming porcelain. Until the close of the nineteenth century the classics constituted practically the only form of education in the schools. It is also worthy of note that under the régime of the late dynasty all historical dramas dealing with the Manchu period were sternly forbidden. It is in the historical and mythological drama that the actor "struts his brief hour" most proudly. The elaborate costumes which are worn contribute largely to the effect which he produces, and to the feeling of awe which he inspires in the minds of his illiterate audiences. In the best class of theatre the wardrobe is a most costly one, being valued, perhaps, at so much as £1,800, while even in the lower-class houses the value may approximate a half of this sum. On the other hand, scenery and "properties" are usually conspicuous by their absence, save in the foreign Treaty Ports or other spheres of foreign influence. Here the appointments are surprisingly up to date, even to such realistic effects as snow and thunder storms and revolving stages-the latter probably re-acquired from the Japanese. But while any actual scenic effect is so frequently lacking, the actors will not fail bravely to attempt some dramatic illusion. A mountain pass will be represented by a heap of chairs and tables piled upon the stage, and the effect produced by a general leading his army through obstacles which might well have puzzled Hannibal in the Alps to surmount with dignity may easily be imagined. I have seen a mounted (!) messenger gallop madly on to the stage, dismount and hand his imaginary horse to a groom. Not a smile amongst his audience to indicate that, in their opinion at least, it was other than a brilliant tour de force. The Cook's tourist who travels up the China coast usually visits a Chinese theatre at Hongkong or Shanghai-or more frequently his experience is derived merely from China Town in San Francisco. It is only within the last three years that a native theatre upon the European plan has been built in Shanghai. He finds himself in a barn of a building, seated at a little table, and surrounded by a crowd of Chinese, who appear to regard teadrinking and chatter as the sole object of their presence there, for they mostly sit with their backs to the stage. Declining the tea and hot, damp towel which are immediately forthcoming, he will doubtless light his strongest cigar and turn his attention to the performance. Through a deafening noise from the drums and gongs, and to a continuous obligato by the "wry-necked fife," the actors, on a stage bare of scenery, speak their parts in a curious falsetto voice and, remarked above, in some form of dialect which must be unintelligible to the greater part of the audience. Indeed, the acting seems to consist in a succession of curious postures and dramatic attitudes, varied by, apparently, meaningless processions of "supers" in brilliant robes. Such is as the presentation of an historical play; nor is it to be wondered at that the foreigner, after twenty minutes of such an experience, should come to regard the Chinese theatre as one of the most exquisite forms of torture which even the Chinese have ever invented. The other class of play which has a great vogue in China is the "modern drama." This treats of incidents of every-day life, and of such familiar scenes as the particular audience will most readily appreciate. The wit of it is at times somewhat Rabelaisian, but apparently this in no way detracts from the enjoyment of the audience. The Chinese have the keenest sense of humor, and it needs but the poorest attempt at a joke on the part of a stranger immediately to establish the most friendly relations. Naturally, the spirit of a modern play is more readily entered into than is the case with an historical one. The enjoyment of the latter is tempered by a feeling of awe and reverence for the mighty dead: the dramatis persona of the former are men and women who may be met with at any time in the original. Apart from this there is the difference in method of presentation. Whilst the historical play holds the more important position from the nature of the subjects of which it treats, its presentation involves a far greater expenditure, upon costumes and so forth, than does the modern drama. Hence the latter is to be met with the more frequently. The performance of the modern play is more simple and straightforward; there is less of the blaring orchestra, the actors speak more intelligibly, and, further, the plot of the play is very frequently printed in a cheap form and sold broadcast. In fact, as it may now be witnessed at the large, foreign-style theatres, with excellent acting, this kind of play can prove a source of an enjoyable hour's entertainment even to a for eigner who knows nothing of the language. Such conditions cannot, however, often be met with away from the great towns. The sleepy interior, despite the universal d. postage and the vaunted dissemination of Reuter's telegrams, still clings tenaciously to its drama of "yesterday." For the sake of completeness a brief digression may here be permissible into the characteristics of Chinese dramatic incidental music, a form of the art more maligned by foreigners than any other. The subject is more fully dealth with elsewhere. So far as I can ascertain it appears to consist of two kinds-Erh-wang, used in the domestic drama, with an orchestra of flutes and strings, drums and gongs, and Pangtzu used in martial and historical scenes, with a similar orchestra, but without wood-wind. By the character of the music, the changes of tempo, &c., the regular theatre-goer knows exactly what action to expect upon the stage. He can tell to a nicety whether the general and his army are going to be victorious or not; whether the village Romeo will be happily united to the maiden of his choice or will suffer a lingering death at the hands of the local apothecary. Pioneers in most things, the Chinese would certainly seem fully justified in placing "programme music" also to their credit. But what is more curious still is the fact that in one modern drama at least I noticed the constant use, in varying forms, of a three or four bar phrase, in the form of a genuine leitmotif, to accentuate a dramatic situation. Such, then, are the principal points of difference in the mode of performance. The possibilities of the drama in China as a medium of education will be apparent; and a brief consideration of some of the occasions "The Chinese and their Music." Musical Times, September, 1912. |