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New training methods and techniques will be needed to meet aerospace training requirements. It is not anticipated that these techniques. will be revolutionary in nature or that they will be generated primarily because of incoming space-system development or any one type of system, but they are inherent in an evolutionary training concept. When conceptual methods and techniques must be developed, they will be programed—as at present-into the research and development structure so that they can be applied to the training environment. Examples of these developments which are now in the program and which will see greater use in the next decade are closed-circuit TV, automated teaching devices utilizing computer techniques with programed questions and answers, and advanced simulators that can simulate a complete mission profile and total environment. The objec tives of these and other such developments are to increase the rate of learning, increase retention factors, cut training costs and time, and produce better-qualified personnel.

Concurrency as applied to hardware development is well known, but its impact on training has not been so well understood. In the past, weapon systems have evolved in sequential, definite steps. This phasing provided lead time for planning and conducting training after the development cycle. The concurrency concept has resulted in an overlap in the development, testing, production, and operational cycles. The resulting compression of time means that planning for training and developing a training capability must start during the conceptual stage, if trained operating and maintenance personnel are to be ready as soon as the system becomes operational. Training under the concurrency concept presents a constant challenge. At the beginning of training it is necessary to use research data and to develop training aids that will depict principles and fundamentals. Often there are no guides, no textbooks, no past to draw on. The program must be built from bare beginnings and evolve with the developments in the system as it progresses from drawing board to reality. Thus training must reflect the changes that take place during the research, testing, production, and operational cycles, all of which may be overlapping. Training lead time in some cases, such as for skilled missile technicians, is now longer than the lead time required to develop new weapon systems. Two concepts are valid in this area: (1) a weapon system will not be operational nor will it function efficiently unless there has been adequate and timely training of operator and maintenance personnel, and (2) planning for the required training must be a part of the concurrency concept and must start at the conceptual stage.

Complexity of new and future systems entering the aerospace force inventory will require personnel with a better background in basic principles and fundamentals, in addition to specific equipment-oriented training in their career areas. This broad background will enable the individual to understand how and why he must accomplish specific functions and tasks and to develop his capacity to operate and maintain specific hardware. It

will provide a base on which to grow careerwise and flexibility for assignment to follow-on systems with minimum retraining.

training for space systems

As the United States advances in its space efforts during the oncoming decade and as its aerospace forces begin to operate increasingly in what is commonly called space, training programs geared to space vehicles will have to be developed. At present many agencies are engaged in related research and operations. However, one U.S. agency should be responsible for the complete training of the personnel who will operate in space. This single agency will provide continuity, centralized control, efficiency, economy, and flexibility to meet all agencies' needs and will preclude interagency dupli

cation.

Although manned operations in space have yet to materialize, the best efforts of Air Training Command to anticipate what will be required to prepare personnel for space have already produced some accepted concepts:

Manning for the space systems will be drawn from existing personnel resources. As systems in the inventory phase out and new systems phase in, no gross effect upon the total USAF manpower requirements is anticipated.

Personnel selected for the space systems will require application of expanded selection procedures, more simulated training, and actual "space" training. However, many of the jobs and positions required by the space systems will be partially or completely compatible with existing personnel qualifications at that time, e.g., launch personnel, communications, data processing, etc.

Training methods and techniques to satisfy the space-systems requirements will evolve from present training. Specific design of simulators and equipment will be peculiar to the manned space systems, but learning techniques and methods will not.

Instructors for the future space systems should be integrated as participants in the space-systems development programs presently existing. These instructors will provide an initial base of experience for future space systems.

Personnel for space systems will present new problems, but their solutions will be built upon past experience with personnel for the air age. Maintenance and support career areas currently in use are compatible with the requirements for space systems. We must update, as required, courses for missile mechanics, airframe repairmen, instrumentation technicians, aircraft and missile accessory specialists for life-support systems, etc. New career areas may evolve, as in nuclear propulsion.

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Crews selected to man space systems will initially be retrained jet crew personnel. Personnel for existing X-15, Dyna-Soar, Mercury Project, and super-mach aircraft will have the basic qualifications to retrain into spacecrew functions. Eventually the selection of crews for manned space systems will involve the development of criteria for physical and mental capabilities heretofore unmatched except in the Mercury Astronaut selection program. Although the exact stresses to be placed on a spacecrewman are unknown at this time, the general stressful areas are well recognized. Weightlessness, sensory deprivation, accelerative forces, excessive heat, and isolation are all stresses which must be considered in any program of selection and training for spacecrews.

Physical examinations presently used for aircrew qualification will have to be supplemented by two other types of tests to adequately evaluate manned space-system crews. The first of these added tests will be the stress tests. They will encompass such aspects as physical fitness and tolerance to acceleration, heat, noise, and vibration,

Psychological tests will be the second group of added tests and perhaps the most important. The spacecrewman will have to have a rare psychologi cal make-up. He will have a high level of intelligence. He should be able to work as an integral member of a group and then suddenly accept extreme isolation. He should be able to respond to foreseeable situations in predictable manner and also to adapt rapidly to unanticipated and unfamiliar circumstances. The proper selection of spacecrews will be of great importance, and the responsibility for much of such a selection program will fall within the medical and paramedical fields.

Simulation devices of advanced sophistication will be needed to raise individuals to the required level of proficiency in the numerous aspects of space missions without the tremendous expenditure of effort, hardware, and facilities to give this required training in space. Examples of these are: (1) World-wide escape and survival procedures and equipment. (2) Operation and maintenance of various space vehicle subsystems in independent and integrated programs, such as vehicle control systems, reconnaissance subsystems, systems for communications, display, warning, life support, etc. (3) Complete mission profiles, to include preparation for launch, injection to orbit, orbiting, re-entry, and recovery.

Training vehicles will have to be developed to give individuals or crews training in actual space vehicles and actual space conditions. There are many areas that cannot be taught by simulators but only by actual flight. For manned space systems examples of these areas are (1) actual launching, (2) speed regimes up to and including orbital or near orbital speeds, (3) actual vehicle and subsystem mission performance in actual environment, and (4) psychological preparation for actual mission requirements. Psychological preparation will be most important, as it will prove to the individual that he can do it and that the equipment does work and perform. Crew confidence is thus developed. This is an important factor, since the mission performance will depend on the capability of the crew.

Training sites will eventually be needed to train crews for space flight.

Initially training will be accomplished at present facilities. As the training load grows, these bases will not be able to handle space training along with their other functions. Present flying training sites do not have the environment or facilities that will be compatible with those needed at spaceflight sites.

THE aerospace force of the next decade will thus require more and higherquality manpower, trained in more advanced skills.

There will be a training evolution during this period, not a training revolution. We will build on the knowledge and experience of the past.

Space training will have its beginning in this time period and will run concurrently with other training.

The time compression in the development of systems will necessitate earlier planning and programing to develop the training program and training equipment. If anything, training will have to lead system develop

ment.

Because of the many new systems that will be developed during this period, there will be a need for new training devices, new training facilities, and new training vehicles. These will be more complex and costlier than today's counterparts.

Tomorrow's Aerospace Force will demand more of the men who man it-more in knowledge, stamina, versatility, imagination, and training. Ant important challenge will be to prepare the man for this force.

Headquarters Air Training Command