ing been used at any period as a public house. The event is thus briefly recorded in the parish register: "Burials: April 17, 1687. Georges Vilaus, lord dooke of Bookingham." Helmsley castle stood a siege during the civil war, but was compelled to surrender to the parliamentary forces, and was afterward dismantled.

Rievaulx Abbey was one of the largest monastic structures in England. The probable length of the nave is estimated at 150 feet, and the whole length of the the building at 330 or 340 feet. The choir is 144 feet long and 63 feet wide, and the transept 118 feet long and 33 feet wide. The church and the refectory are the the principal parts of the edifice which remain. The abbey was founded in 1181, by Sir Walter Espee, whose only child, a son, was killed by a fall from his horse, at Kirkham; in consequence of which the afflicted parent resolved to devote the greater part of his possessions to religious purposes, and he accordingly built abbeys at Rievaulx and Kirkham, in Yorkshire, and at Warden, in Bedfordshire. Rievaulx is situated in a valley, the surrounding heights being covered with wood to their summits. The village is close to the abbey, and consists of a few scattered cottages, but they do not destroy the harmony of the picture, which, with the ruin, the wooded heights, a winding river, and two picturesque bridges, form a combination of objects that can not fail to strike the least practised eye. One of the Duncombe family, in whose possession the site has remained since 1695, formed a fine terrace on the hill which overlooks the ruins. It is said by many to be the finest in England.

On the monasteries of the first class being dissolved, Rievaulx, the revenues of which were valued at 3787. 10s. 2d. per annum, was seized by the crown, and afterward granted in exchange to a descendant of the Espee family. The duke of Buckingham obtained possession of it through his marriage, and the trustees of George, the second duke, sold it in 1695 to Sir Charles Duncombe, an ancestor of Lord Feversham, the present owner.

The dissolution of monastic establishments in England, in the reign of Henry VIII., is a circumstance of great historical interest, and closely connected with the circumstances under which considerable property is now held, both by laymen and for ecclesiastical purposes. The question of breaking up the monasteries was formally proposed by Cromwell, one of the ministers of Henry VIII., in the year 1535, and a general visitation of the monasteries by commissioners was ordered. It was first determined to meddle only with the smaller monasteries; and a bill passed both houses of parliament, in 1536, giving to the king all monastic establishments, the clear yearly value of which did not exceed 2001. with the property belonging to them, both real and personal, vesting the possession of the buildings and lands in those persons to whom the king should assign them by letters patent; but obliging the grantees, under the penalty of ten marks per month, to keep on them an honest house and household, and to plough the same number of acres which had been ploughed on an average for the last twenty years.

Dr. Lingard states, in his "History of England," that it was calculated that, by this act, about three hundred and eighty religious communities would be dissolved; and that an addition of 32,000l. would be made to the yearly revenue of the crown, besides the present receipt of 100,0007. in money, plate, and jewels.

The commissioners who were appointed to put the act in execution were ordered to proceed to each religious house to announce its dissolution to the superior-to make an inventory of the effects-to secure the convent-seal and the title-deedsand to dispose of the inhabitants according to certain rules. The superior received a pension for life: of the monks, those who had not reached the age of twenty-four were absolved from their vows, and had to seek anew the means of existence. Others of the monks, who were placed in another class, were divided among the larger monasteries, or, in case they wished to leave the ecclesiastical state, were promised employment. The nuns were more hardly dealt with: each received a single gown from the king, and in other respects were thrown upon the world, or the support of friends.

The people were strongly affected, in many parts of England, by the consequences which resulted even from the dissolution of the smaller monasteries. The poor had formerly been fed at these establishments, and were now deprived of this ancient resource. Persons of property contended that the wealth of the monasteries ought not to fall into possession of the crown, but that it should revert to the representa tives of the ancient donors. In the autumn of 1536, the state of public feeling was manifested by an insurrection in the northern counties, which was joined, most proba

bly from inclination, by the archbishop of York, several noblemen, many knights, and most of the gentry; indeed, all whose attachment to ancient manners and customs was deeply rooted could not fail to desire that the progress of innovation should be checked. The insurrection, though of a formidable nature, was ultimately put down. This movement is generally spoken of as the "pilgrimage of grace," the banners of the insurgents being painted with the image of Christ crucified, and the chalice and host, the emblems of their faith. In many districts they placed the ejected monks in their former convents.

It appears now to have been the determination of the king and his ministers to deal with the larger monasteries in the same way as with the smaller ones. For a considerable period, commissioners were at work investigating the circumstances and condition of each establishment. In 1539 a bill was brought into parliament vesting in the crown all the property, moveable and immoveable, of the monasteries, and by the spring of the year 1540 it had been surrendered into other hands.

Dr. Lingard gives the following scale of pensions allotted to the ejected inhabitants of the monasteries. To the superiors, from 2667. to 67. per annum; priors of cells, generally about 137., and in a few instances 207. ;, to the other monks, pensions of 6l., 41, or 21., with a small sum to provide for immediate wants on their departure. The pensions to nuns averaged about 47. It should be recollected that the value of money has greatly changed since that period.

As soon as an abbey was surrendered, the commissioners, according to Burnet, proceeded to break the seal and assign pensions to the members. The plate and jewels were reserved for the king; the furniture and goods were sold. The abbott's lodging and the offices were left standing for the convenience of the next occupant: the church, cloisters, and apartments for the monks, were stripped of the lead and every saleable article.

It appears from Rymer that the lands sold at twenty, the buildings at fifteen years' purchase; the buyers were to hold of the crown, paying a reserved rent.

According to the "Liber Regis," and other authentic sources, the annual revenue of all the suppressed monastic houses amounted to 142,9147. 12s. 94d., being about the one-and-twentieth part of the whole rental of the kingdom, if the estimates of Hume be correct, which assigned the amount at 3,000,000l. The amount of the estimates of the annual value of real property of England and Wales, as assessed in 1815, was about 52,000,000Z.

Byland abbey is in the North Riding of the county of York, and not more than five miles from Rievaulx Abbey. As the history of these monastic establishments, which were once so numerous in England, generally contains some indications of the manners and habits of early times, and affords data for showing the changes which have taken place in the state of society, we shall give a brief account of the old abbey at Byland, from the records of one of the abbots, which may be seen at greater length in Dugdale's "Monasticon."

Byland abbey appears to have been founded in the twelfth century by Roger de Mowbray, at the instance of his mother. The abbot and twelve monks of Furness abbey, in Lancashire, having been disturbed by the incursions of the Scots, fled to York, where they were for some time entertained by the archbishop, by whom they were recommended to the protection of De Mowbray. Being a minor, however, his mother received them at her castle, and she afterward sent them to a near relation of her own, who had been a monk at Whitby, but who then led an eremetical life at Hode. Here she supplied them with necessaries until her son attained his majority, when he granted them a sufficient portion of land for their support. The monks soon afterward procured, at a general chapter of their order, held in France, an exemption from their former subjection to Furness. They remained at Hode several years, when, on the ground that their former grant did not afford them sufficient space, the church and town of Byland were granted to them for the purpose of building an abbey. Here they were too near the abbey of Rievaulx, being within the sound of its bells; and as there were some other inconveniences attached to the place, De Mowbray granted them another piece of land on which to erect their monastery, and they then built a small church, a cloister, and houses. Their possessions were soon considerably increased, and they added to the value of them by clearing the woodland and draining the marshes. They removed, in 1177, a little to the eastward, where the abbey of Byland, the remains of which are represented in the engraving, was built and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

At this period the pope exercised great authority over the ecclesiastical affairs of England, and the monks of Byland seem to have received various privileges from the head of the church. Pope Alexander III. exempted them from paying tithes for such lands as they owned or rented; Gregory II., from payment of tithes on the produce of mines which they held in their own hands; and other popes confirmed them in the enjoyment of these privileges. King Henry II. specially favored the abbey with his protection, and granted the monks and their servants freedom from tolls in all cities, boroughs, markets, fairs, bridges, and ports, in England and Normandy; and Henry III. conferred on them secular jurisdiction in their manors of Sutton and Clifton, in Yorkshire, and at Wardecop, in Westmoreland.

It is not at all surprising that wealth flowed in upon the monastic establishments. They were compelled, as a matter of necessity, to pay attention to the cultivation of the soil; for there were few towns, and the division of employments had not extended in such a manner as to render it safe for a body of men, placed in a secluded part of the country, to depend for the necessaries of life upon the surplus produce of the agriculturist. They might, perhaps, have been supported by the free-will offerings of the devout; but when the gifts which were made them consisted almost wholly of land, it was much more natural that they should attempt to improve it by cultivation; and as there did not exist a large class like the present race of tenantfarmers until the period just preceding the dissolution, agricultural pursuits were forced, in some measure, upon the religious communities. To this occupation they would bring a greater degree of intelligence than the other classes of society possessed; and the improvements which were slowly introduced in agriculture would most probably be frequently discovered, or at least practised, at an early period in the monastic granges. Information circulated among these communities from one end of Europe to the other, and a constant interchange of ideas was kept up by means of general chapters of each order-by pilgrimages, and various necessities connected with their common interests. The skill which they possessed as agricul turists there is every reason to conclude was superior to that of any other class, and the gardens attached to the monasteries occupied much attention, and exhibited the earliest improvements in that useful department of husbandry. The consequence was, that the religious houses increased in wealth, and, becoming more secular, they lost their empire over the religious sentiments of the age, and were regarded with jealousy by the parochial clergy. The monks were liberal and hospitable. They relieved the poor, were moderate in the rents which they exacted, and took no excessive fines in the leases which they renewed. But at the dissolution they had outlived the useful purposes to which they were once subservient. The better education which the laity were beginning to receive qualified them for state employments, and ecclesiastics began to lose the direction of public affairs. The influence of the monastic orders also declined, in consequence of the increased activity of society opening to the laity more frequent opportunities of pursuing a career of usefulness. The laity multiplied books, and in the walks of literature and science pressed upon the heels of the churchmen. In time the latter ceased to be the exclusive lights of the age. Pope Ganganelli remarked: "The religious orders have not been gifted with infallibility, nor with indefectibility. If they were to be all abolished this day, the loss would be great; but the church would be neither less holy, less apostolical, nor less respectable."

The general measures which preceded the dissolution of the monasteries have already been described. When Henry VIII. consulted with his council on this subject, one was of opinion that "there is a due place left for monasteries; yet, when they grow to that multitude, that either the just proportion they bear in a state is exceeded, or they become a receptacle, only for lazy and idle persons, it is fit to apply some convenient remedy. Therefore, be pleased, sir, not to think so much of their overthrow as their reformation." Another of the council remarked, that "the clergy had one fourth part of all the revenues of the kingdom; that this was an undue propor tion; and that two or three monasteries left in every shire would be sufficient." The result was, that the first blow at the monastic institutions was aimed only at the smaller monasteries, which were the least able to offer resistance; but the whole were soon afterward surrendered.

Byland abbey was not included in the number of monasteries which were first dissolved, and by the king's letters-patent, dated January 28, 1537, it was refounded;

Byland Abbey, Yorkshire, from a Drawing by W. Westall, A.R.A.

but two years afterward it was surrendered, when the abbot and monks received pensions. There were seven bells in the abbey, and it contained five hundred and sixteen ounces of plate. The lead which was stripped off the building amounted to one hundred fodder, and, with the bells and plate, was sold for the king's use. The gross income of the institution was 2951. 5s. 4d.; the net income, 2387. 9s. 4d.

Mr. Moore, an antiquarian, who visited Byland abbey about the year 1789, states, that it is of a date and style of architecture nearly coeval with Rievaulx, and that it is nearly five miles distant from it across a moor, from which, in descending a steep hill, the prospect of a fine country and of this abbey opens itself, and presently leads to the village. All that remains of Byland is comparatively a fragment, but it is sufficient to show that the abbey must have been a fine specimen of church architecture. The doorway is richly ornamented, and the windows elegantly formed.

St. Alban's is, in many respects, one of the towns of England most dignified by historical associations. It was one of the principal places of the ancient Britons before the Roman conquest; and, within twenty-one years after the invasion of the island, was raised by the Romans to the rank of a city, under the name of Verulam. Many considerable fragments of the Roman Verulam still exist, at a short distance from the present town, particularly a large piece of wall, constructed of Roman tile, now called Gorhambury block. Dr. Stukely, a celebrated antiquarian writer, has calculated that about a hundred acres were included within the Roman wall. The greater part of the city, first built by the Romans, was demolished by Britons, under Queen Boadicea, in the 61st year after the birth of Christ; but it was soon rebuilt, and the inhabitants continued under the protection of the Romans for a long period. In the persecution of the Christians under the Roman emperor Dioclesian, in the year 304, Alban, a native of Verulam, who had been a soldier at Rome, suffered martyrdom for his faith; and being the first Briton who had been put to death for his religious opinions, he is called England's proto-martyr, or first martyr, as St. Stephen is called the proto-martyr of Christianity. In 795, Offa, king of the Mercians, founded an abbey at Holmhurst, close by the ancient Verulam, in honor of St. Alban, and the place was thenceforward called St. Alban's. The abbey flourished for more than seven centuries. Its buildings, erected from time to time, resembled a town more than a religious house. It had magnificent apartments, in which the kings of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were frequently entertained. The annual revenues, during its greatest prosperity, were valued at 2,500 pounds, an enormous sum in those days.

Of this immense establishment, nothing is left but the present conventual church, a gate-house, and a few scattered walls. The church, which was principally erected in the reign of William Rufus, is in magnitude equal to our largest cathedrals. It measures five hundred and fifty feet from east to west; if we include a chapel at one end, six hundred and six feet. The extreme breadth, at the intersection of the transepts, is two hundred and seventeen feet. The exterior of this great pile is not very beautiful; but the spectator is struck with its vastness, its simplicity, and its appearance of extreme age. A large part of the original edifice is composed of materials taken from the ruins of the ancient Verulam, consisting chiefly of Roman tile. These portions of the interior are very rude, and form a striking contrast to other parts which were finished after the elegant Norman style was adopted in this country. In this manner it occurs that we see at St. Alban's a mixture of the round and the pointed arch, in two sides of the same building, directly opposite each other. It is singular that, as one side of the building fell into decay, the later style of architecture, that of the pointed arch, should have been used, while the more ancient round arch was suffered to remain on the opposite side. This want of uniformity greatly diminishes the beauty of the interior; but, still, many of its effects are remarkably striking, particularly that of the vast length of the church from east to west. Some parts of the edifice furnish, also, beautiful and perfect specimens of the most delicate workmanship.

The abbey-church of St. Alban's contains the monuments of several illustrious men, particularly that of Duke Humphrey, of Gloucester, the brother of Henry V. But St. Alban's possesses the much higher distinction of being the burial-place, as it was the abode, of the great Lord Bacon. The old church of St. Michael, in this town, contains the remains of the immortal founder of the inductive philosophy, which delivered the human mind from the tyranny of opinions established by pre