a fault, nor tell lies.

masons have built the wall; the house is finished. Come to tea at six o'clock. The wind blows violently. Improve your time. Bid him wait for me. They forsook him and fled. The enemy gave chase. The bird flew to its nest. The mower whets his scythe. Never conceal Wash your hands and face, and brush your clothes ; do not tear nor destroy them. Thrice he routed all his foes; and thrice he slew the slain. Let him that stole, steal no more. Hold; I command you both. Present my respects to him; tell him I shall be glad to see him. Why does he shrink from inquiry? The transaction ought to be investigated.

They dwelt in a mud cottage. I found him, where I least expected to see him.

"I sink, I fall; oh, help me, help; she cries."
"Drinks the bright shower, and feeds upon the air."

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

Verbs are defective which want the past tense or the past-participle.

Must is never used but as an auxiliary.

Ought is used in the present and past tenses, with the inflection of the second person,-thou oughtest. Quoth is wholly obsolete, except in poetry and burlesque; it is used in the third person singular, with the nominative following it; as, quoth he. Wit, to know, is obsolete, except in law phrase; and rarely, in the enumeration of particulars-as, twenty prisoners were brought in, viz. or to wit, one officer, one sergeant, and eighteen privates.

IMPERSONAL VERBS are used in the third person singular only, with it for a nominative-as, it rains; it becomes youth to be modest. In Latin impersonal verbs are without a nominative; as, libet, it pleases, it contents; pugnatur, they fight.

ADVERB.

AN ADVERB is a word added to a perfect sentence, for the purpose primarily of modifying an adjective, or a verb; or, secondarily, another adverb. The adverb is not employed to modify substantives, as that is the function of the adjective, or of the restrictive particles. Hence the use of adverbs is to enlarge, restrain, limit, define, and in general to modify, the sense of other words. Adverbs are therefore a secondary part of speech.

Adjectives, pronominal adjectives, and generally participles, are capable of modification. Thus a spire which is lofty, may be very lofty, surprisingly lofty, moderately lofty, or not lofty. We say a remarkably intelligent youth, an over indulgent parent, a truly affectionate friend. In like manner, when we use a participle, or pronominal adjective, we may modify it by the help of an adverb; as, much obliged, greatly indebted, wholly yours, absolutely mine, nobly born, well bred, highly gifted, universally respected, little moved, less affected, equally judicious, not so energetic, thus far, no farther. When we say, the house is surprisingly lofty, we form a double conception; as, first, a conception of loftiness with reference to the house; and, secondly, a conception of surprise with reference to the loftiness,-so that the sentence is resolvable into these other two sentences-" the house is lofty," and "the loftiness is surprising." It is not the house altogether which excites surprise, but its quality of loftiness. A house may be both lofty and surprising, without being surprisingly lofty.

These instances may be considered as examples of positive modification, where we do not compare the loftiness of the house with that of another house. When we make

that comparison we must employ another class of adverbs, and say it is more lofty, or less lofty, or equally lofty, or as lofty, or the most lofty, or the least lofty; we exercise the mental operation employed in the comparison of adjectives-only the degrees of comparison are expressed by adverbs, instead of being incorporated in the same word with the attribute compared. In all cases of comparative modification, the adverb cannot be employed simply or singly. It is then of a relative nature, being necessarily joined in construction, either with some other word, or inflection of a word in the same sentence; which words, or inflections, when they serve to modify adjectives or verbs, we also consider to be of the nature of adverbs.

As the verb asserts or manifests existence, either simply or together with some attribute of action or passion-the adverb may either modify the attribute involved in the verb, or it may modify the mere assertion of existence. When it modifies the attribute its operation resembles the modification of the adjective. He runs swiftly is of the same import as he is running swiftly; for the word swiftly modifies the verb runs, and the participle running in the When the adverb expresses any limitation

same manner.

of the time, place, circumstances, or actual occurrence of the fact, the case is somewhat different. The words now, then, when, always, never, &c., modify the assertion in point of time. If we say a certain event happens now, the assertion is limited to the present time; if we say it happened yesterday, the assertion is limited to a certain time past. The assertion that it always happens, contradicts the assertion that it does not always happen, and a fortiori the assertion that it never happens. With respect to place, the assertion that a fact occurred here or there, is

no assertion with regard to what may have happened elsewhere. The occurrence of any event may be certain or doubtful, actual or contingent; and we may therefore say it will perhaps happen, it may possibly happen, it will certainly happen, it really happened, &c.

The variety of circumstances attending different transactions, which may be expressed by adverbs, is very extensive. An event may occur aboard or ashore; aloft or below; abroad or at home; a ship may be cut adrift; the travellers may be afoot; the army may be marching homewards; the music may cease awhile, it may be begun anew; the adventure may terminate successfully, &c.

The secondary use of the adverbs is similar to the primary. As the adjective modifies the substantive, and the adverb modifies the adjective, so may a second adverb be applied to the former with the same power of modification. As the word admirably may be applied to good, so may very be prefixed to both together, and we may say a very admirably good discourse. The discourse is good, the goodness is admirable, the admiration is extreme.

We next consider the sort of sentence to which an adverb is added, and the manner in which the addition is made. By a perfect sentence is meant one which enunciates some truth or expresses some passion with its object. The adverb may be added even to a simple imperative. The imperative fly is in effect a perfect sentence, for it implies an agent and an act; it couples the conception of the act of flying with the conception of the person addressed. To this sentence, therefore, an adverb may be added consistently with our definition; we may say fly quickly! When Macbeth says,

After life's fitful fever he sleeps well,

there can be no difficulty in understanding that the adverb well modifies the verb sleeps. When we say the sentence must be perfect, we mean it must be perfect in the mind; in expression, a part, or even the whole of it, may be understood. A part is understood, when the mind supplies what is necessary to complete the sentence, as in these animated lines of Sir Walter Scott

On Stanley! on!

Were the last words of Marmion.

In this sentence the adverb on refers to a verb understood in the mind implying impetuous action, as march, rush, or the like. The verb is not expressed because it is indifferent to the speaker; but the adverb is expressed because it is of the utmost importance, because to the dying hero the mode of getting at the enemy was altogether immaterial; but to get at them by any means was his most ardent wish.

When the adverb is responsive, the whole of the sentence is understood; as, Will you come? Yes. When will you come ? Presently. How often did he come? Once. These answers mean, I will come certainly; I will come presently; he came once. Consequently the adverbs yes, presently, once, modify will come and did come respectively. Servius, a Roman author, has asserted what is literally true,-Omnis pars orationis migrat in adverbium. Every part of speech is capable of being converted into an adverb." Horne Tooke sarcastically remarks that the class of adverbs is the common sink and repository of all heterogeneous unknown corruptions."

ઃઃ

'

Adjectives may be used adverbially.

When we enun

ciate the three following propositions in successionFirst, A certain quantity exists;