undergraduates in 1943-44 as compared with the more than 900 in 1940. The drastic reduction from 3,550 to 652 in the number of men students which took place during this period was to be expected. But the drop in the number of women students in architecture, in spite of the general increase in the number of women college students, was probably due to the fact that architecture was not publicized as a field of key importance in the war effort, as were engineering and chemistry, for example. However, many architects and landscape architects did serve in architectural and in engineering jobs in both military and civilian service.

One young woman who was graduated with a degree in landscape architecture by Cornell University started as a draftsman at a radio manufacturing plant shortly after Pearl Harbor. In 1946, holding the title of engineer, she was in charge of properties, being responsible for space mapping and lay-out for the entire company, the moving of office fixtures, etc., and had several men working under her supervision. Because private building was virtually stalled during the war, many architects, both men and women, gave up their private practice and did drafting or other production work or entered military or Federal service, resuming their practice after the war. One, for example, joined the Women's Marine Corps Reserve. A few women architects were employed in aircraft companies covered in the course of this study. One, for example, after orientation training, was engaged on tool design; another with long experience taught drafting to women newly recruited during the war. A number were employed on production illustration, preparing pictorial illustrations to supplement the usual mechanical drawings. A container manufacturing company used women architects on design and estimating work. One graduate in city planning who married an Englishman was put in charge of wartime evacuation plans for English children. During the war, there was very little demand in the Federal service for architects except in the National Housing Agency and its affiliates, in the Office of Price Administration, and in the War Production Board, where a few men were hired for allocation work. However, 5 women architects were employed by the Engineer Corps on temporary war work; and a half dozen, on war housing in Washington, D. C., alone. Only a few women were teaching architecture during the war, according to a survey made at the end of 1942 by the National Roster of Scientific and Specialized Personnel which reported 10 women among a total of 336 college teachers of architecture (557).

Earnings, Hours, and Advancement

As in all fields where independent practice is prevalent, earnings vary from a net loss to substantial incomes, according to the employ

ment or practice of the individual. Most architects in private practice customarily charge a fee based on a percentage of cost varying with the type of construction. A New York architect, for example, reports the following: residential work, 10 percent or more; large-scale developments, relatively less; interior design, 15 percent or more. Earnings for those in independent practice and their employees, therefore, tend to rise quickly in times of building activity and fall sharply when the volume of construction is low. In 1936-37, the annual income of men architects who had been graduated from the College of Architecture of the University of Southern California during the preceding 8 years, most of which were years of depression, ranged from $200 to $6,500. The lowest median, $1,250, was found in the depression class of 1931; the highest, $2,800, in the class of 1928 (66). Late in 1945, entrance salaries for architectural graduates employed by architectural firms, however, usually approached the top limit of the prewar salaries of $25 to $40 weekly ($1,300 to $2,080 a year) according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (46) and in some cases exceeded it. The rate of pay for architects at the beginning Federal civil service professional level was $2,644 in 1947.

A landscape architect may charge a percentage-cost or a flat fee, depending upon the nature of the project.

Hours in any architect's office are apt to be long, with periods of high tension. Clients often want last-minute alterations, and time schedules with both client and contractors must be maintained.

Advancement for women architects, as for men, lies chiefly in building up an active independent practice by acquiring a reputation for outstanding work in a local community. The quality of their work and their ability to consider the functions to be performed in the structure as well as pleasing facades are important especially in dwelling design. A few women have gained distinction in architecture through writing and other nonpracticing channels.

Organizations

The American Institute of Architects, founded in 1857, is the principal organization of professional architects (3). In 1947, it was estimated by the Department of Education and Research of the Institute that there were about 15,000 registered architects in the United States, of whom about 6,500 belonged to the Institute. Fifty-six women were listed as members in the 1945-46 Annuary of the Institute. For full or "corporate" membership, the endorsement of 2 corporate members and assurance by the local chapter of the Institute that the candidate possesses the qualifications required and an honorable standing in the profession and in his community are required. If he is a registered

architect who has passed an examination satisfactory to the Institute, or has the approval of the chapter executive committee, submission of exhibits is waived. Associate membership, usually for a limited 3-year period, is available to architects, skilled architectural draftsmen, and other technical employees in an architect's office, and to professors in recognized schools of architecture. A junior associateship is available to draftsmen or other technical employees in architects' offices who cannot qualify because of inexperience or financial limitations for the associateship. There is also provision for student membership.

The American Society of Landscape Architects in 1947 had 381 full members of whom 54, or 14 percent, were women. Members must be landscape architects at least 21 years of age in good professional standing and of sound technical training including sufficient knowledge of and practical experience in landscape architectural design and construction and in the preparation and execution of plans involving the materials used in landscape architecture. Membership is by election of the board of trustees following recommendation by 3 members of the society and review by the total membership and a special examining board. "Junior Associates," who in 1947 numbered 107 of whom 17 were women, are affiliates who have a degree in landscape architecture approved by the society or other acceptable evidence of qualifications and are recommended by 2 members, 1 of whom must have supervised the candidate's work or study.

The Outlook

The increase in building needed to make up the lag in housing, commercial, and institutional construction which characterized the war period and the depression which preceded it will result in a continuing demand for architects, according to the American Institute of Architects and the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (46) (3). Since the number of persons training for this field during the war decreased even more markedly than enrollments in other fields, the outlook for those entering during the next few years is declared to be good. Unfortunately, few women took training in this field during the war.

Women architects take the same basic training as men architects and are fully qualified to design office buildings, stores of all types, and large as well as small developments. An idea of the variety of possibilities may be gained from a selected list of books on architecture prepared by the Committee on Education of the American Institute of Architects (4). However, in the design and remodeling of homes, institutional residences, hotels, and of dress shops and tearooms, schools, and community buildings, women can fill a peculiar need.

drawing class.

Residential construction is assumed by the public to be an appropriate field for women, and probably more women architects have devoted themselves to this branch of work than to any other. In public housing, women have shown special interest and facility, according to the executive director of one large planning commission (27). Being more familiar with home functions, women usually excel in the lay-out of kitchens, storage, and other rooms. City and community planning, too, is a growing field; one woman trained in this work was employed at Tennessee Valley Authority in 1947. The course in this field at Massachusetts Institute of Technology is one of the few at that school to which men and women trained in social science without the usual mathematics and science required for technical degrees are admitted at the graduate level. In 1946, only a few women architects were employed in the Federal Government: one by the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, one by the Tennessee Valley Authority, one by the United States Department of Agriculture, and two by the Federal Public Housing Authority.

There will continue to be occasional openings for women in teaching. In 1947, 3 women were listed as members of architecture faculties and 3 others as members of landscape architecture faculties in the 113 universities or professional schools selected by the United States Office of Education as representative in their enrollments of the 418 institutions of this type in the United States. Two had reached professorial rank. If these institutions are representative of all similar institutions in faculty as well as in enrollment, there were 10 women

on architectural faculties and 10 women on landscape design faculties in 1946-47.

A list of the 42 schools of architecture that were members of the As sociation of Collegiate Schools of Architecture in 1947 as well as a list of other schools and departments offering instruction in architecture are available from the American Institute of Architects. Thirty-four schools were on the 1947-48 list of schools accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board. In 1947, women were enrolled in all but a few of the approved schools. Degrees in landscape architecture are offered at some of these schools. Some collegiate schools of design and schools of agriculture also offer degree courses in landscape design or architecture.

For landscape architecture, a knowledge of horticulture as well as of certain phases of civil engineering is needed. In architecture, mathematics and physics are important background subjects as well as history, art, and drafting. The study of social housing has become increasingly useful. The engineer's ability to visualize a structure and his knowledge of structural materials, the artist's feeling for balance and harmony of color and design, and the entrepreneur's business sense are necessary for success in architecture. One woman architect says "Only the gifted, thoroughly trained, and vigorous woman will want to take on a career so demanding. But to her, the profession will be satisfying."

i