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research projects; parasitology; medicine, nursing, and public health; teaching; and scientific library or secretarial work (14). Because of the tremendous need in medical laboratories, women were hired for hospital laboratory work without the customary learning period or the special course in medical technology usually required.

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Figure 14.-Entomologist testing repellency of cloth against mosquitoes.

The wartime occupations of young women who graduated with the bachelor's degree in zoology during the war years 1942 to 1945 proved to be quite similar to those of prewar graduates, except for the additional outlets of military service and government research projects. (See table 8.) Relatively more women, as scholarships and fellowships were more easily available, undertook graduate work, sometimes combined with college teaching assistantships; this may in part explain the drop in the proportion taking teaching positions in high schools.

Earnings and Advancement

The only recent comprehensive report on earnings of zoologists and others trained in zoology is that of the American Physiological Society, which studied the earnings of physiologists in its 1945 survey. But fragmentary reports on other fields indicate wide variations. In 1946 the salary offered young women with the bachelor's degree in zoology to teach high school science varied from $1,400 to $2,100 for the academic year of 911⁄2 months. In laboratories in medical schools and hospitals, beginning salaries for those with undergraduate degrees varied from $1,300 to $2,250 a year, with lunches often included on hospital jobs. Although most young women took salaried jobs, one recent graduate after taking training became a partner in a medical laboratory, on the basis of receiving one-third of the profits. In 1946 she averaged from $300 to $500 a month. In industry, laboratory jobs paid beginners from $1,800 to $2,000 a year. Those with a master's degree usually started at a salary of $1,800 to $2,500 a year in research laboratories or in biological supply houses. But wide variations in salaries were evident at all levels. A zoologist who had just received her Ph. D. was hired in 1946 by a research foundation at a salary of $2,000 a year as an industrial research chemist. These represent beginning salaries. In the Federal Government the entering salary in 1947 was $2,644. Before the war, 90 percent of the women zoologists employed by the Federal Government earned more than the beginning salary (which at that time was $2,000) (41).

More comprehensive information is available on physiologists. In 1945 the median professional income for women physiologists was $3,200 a year; the median for the entire group, $5,050 (2). Part of this more than 50-percent difference may be due to the fact that 17 percent of the women lacked the doctorate, while only 2 percent of the men were without it.

Advancement in zoology, as in some of the other sciences, has come to women in the form of recognition as scientists but seldom in terms of economic rewards or promotion in title or position. In college teaching, however, a number of women have attained recognition. In 1946, 111 women zoologists were teaching zoology or entomology on the faculties of 330 institutions of higher education that were representative of enrollment in the 1,749 institutions of this type in the United States. Eleven of these women had become full professors, and 17 others had reached a rank above that of instructor. Two of the full professors were in universities. Some of these educators have attained distinction in research as well. For example, 1 woman professor of zoology at a woman's college is well known for her research contributions in endocrinology. One anatomist, who added an M. D.

degree to her degree in science, has won national renown for her work on the pathology of tuberculosis and on the origin, nature, and activities of the white blood cells. Other women in zoology have made contributions to cancer research; a few have become recognized as authors.

During the period 1919-38, 14 of the 134 national research fellowships awarded in zoology by the National Research Council went to women. All had their doctorates, 6 of them in zoology, 3 in physiology, 1 in entomology, 1 in herpetology, 1 in genetics, 1 in morphology, and 1 in biochemistry (15).

Organizations

In 1946 the American Society of Zoologists had more than 1,080 members, of whom about 100 were women (3). This Society, which requires the Ph. D. for membership, is composed mainly of those who are in academic rather than in industrial work. The American Physiological Society, which requires the doctorate and additional original contributions to the literature, in 1945 had 905 members, of whom 59

were women.

In the American Society of Parasitologists women formed 13 percent of the membership, which in 1947 numbered 521. A college degree with some work in zoology is required for membership, and most of the members have had training in parasitology or in tropical medicine. In 1947 the American Association of Anatomists had 864 members, of whom 91 were women (1).

The Entomological Society of America, open to anyone interested in the scientific study of insects, in 1946 had 943 members, of whom 42 were women. In 1934 a woman was for the first time elected to the presidency of this organization. The American Association of Economic Entomologists had approximately 2,000 members at the end of 1946. Only a few were women, however, since economic entomology involves field work in which heavy manual labor is sometimes necessary.

There are numbers of other societies such as the American Ornithologists Union, interested in bird life; the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, interested in fish and reptiles; and the American Society of Mammalogists, interested in man and other animals that nourish their young with milk.

The Outlook

Less affected by World War II than such sciences as chemistry and physics, zoology appears likely to offer to women in the future opportunities similar in quantity and in nature to those available just before the war. The principal possibilities of expanding demand lie: in the

increasing need for teachers, but primarily for those who can teach not only zoology but biology and other sciences as well; in research or laboratory work which is likely to require training in physiology or chemistry as well as in general zoology.

The postwar occupations of women members of the American Society of Zoologists supply the best indication of work available to women with the doctor's degree and experience in zoological work. In August 1946, the type of employment of 90 percent of the women members of the Association was indicated in a membership list (3). Seventy-eight, or 85 percent, were working in colleges or universities, a few in research but most of them in teaching. Eleven of the women members, or roughly 12 percent, were employed in separate research institutions or laboratories. Only one was employed in the Federal Government. Of the remaining two, one worked in a museum, the other in a petroleum company.

The women members of the American Association of Anatomists, which also requires a doctor's degree for membership, were very similar in their distribution by type of employer. Eighty-one women anatomists in 1947 indicated their employment on the Association's membership list (1). Sixty-seven, or 83 percent of them, were working in colleges or universities either in teaching or research. Eleven, or 14 percent, were employed in such research institutions as the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology in Philadelphia, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and the Roscoe B. Jackson Memorial Laboratory at Bar Harbor, Maine.

In 1946, 146 women were found listed in the catalogues of 330 institutions of higher education, comprising a United States Office of Education enrollment sample of all such institutions, as teaching zoology, anatomy, entomology, or parasitology. An additional 9 women were teaching one of these subjects in combination with other sciences or subjects. If these institutions are a true sample of college faculties, as they are of enrollments, there were in all institutions of higher education 585 women teaching one of these zoological sciences exclusively and an additional 130 teaching them in combination with other subjects. Not all of these women, however, had their doctorates. One half of them had either a master's or a doctor's degree. Most of the others, however, were graduate or teaching assistants, probably engaged in work leading to a higher degree. In addition to their teaching duties, a few of these faculty women also served on the staff of an experiment station. In 1945-46, two women, one a professor of zoology and one an associate professor of entomology, also were on the research staff of the experiment station. Some women were engaged in full-time research at these stations. In 1945-46, two women

in animal genetics were on station staffs in addition to a much larger number in animal husbandry and animal pathology as noted later.

At the bachelor's degree level, one of the characteristic paths followed by many young women graduated in zoology will continue to be training and practice in one of the professions in the medical and other health services. Of 23 young women graduated in zoology in 1945 or 1946, on whom follow-up reports were available, only 1 was going on with graduate work in zoology, while 7 were taking training for work as a physician, nurse, occupational therapist, medical laboratory technologist, or health educator. One writer, in calling attention to the fact that "medicine is the destination of the majority of students who take zoology," expressed the opinion that this has been a handicap to the development of zoology (9). One prominent woman zoologist believes that this is due to the failure to make known to college students interested in zoology the variety of other work available. For women, the difference in opportunity between medicine and zoology is less marked than it has been for men. The deciding factor is more likely to be the preference for an occupation involving constant practice of procedures and techniques as compared with one in which teaching is the principal outlet for those who become expert. Except in certain universities and in a few of the women's colleges, preparation for medicine is uppermost, and the curriculum is designed to meet the requirements of the medical schools.

For those trained at the bachelor's level, teaching in secondary schools will continue to provide opportunity, especially for those who can teach biology, other sciences, or mathematics, besides zoology. Three of the 23 graduates in 1945-46 mentioned above became teachers. A large demand for the bachelor group, however, will continue to come from medical laboratories of all types. Of the 23 graduates mentioned before, 6 were employed in medical laboratories. One, after completing a special training course for medical technologists, was doing routine laboratory tests in a hospital. Two others were working in pathology laboratories in hospitals. [See Women's Bureau bulletin on medical laboratory technicians (42).] The other three were research assistants, one in a hospital, one in a medical school, one in a public health laboratory. Only two of the graduates were working in industrial laboratories: one as an assistant in a biological laboratory, the other as an assistant in the chemical laboratory of a pharmaceutical company.

Women trained primarily in zoology are rarely found in industry. In the 100 industrial firms visited by a representative of the Women's Bureau in the course of this study, the only woman with a bachelor's degree in zoology found employed in scientific work was one working

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