Meteorologist as Defined by the National Roster of Scientific and Specialized Personnel (66)

"A meteorologist makes use of a knowledge of physics, mathematics, and meteorology in interpreting weather data obtained with various instruments such as the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, anemometer, and radiosonde to determine the causes which bring about such atmospheric conditions as rain, fog, or snow. On the basis of his findings, he makes forecasts of weather for short or long periods. These forecasts are of great importance to farmers in planting and harvesting; shipping and insurance companies; towns; business and commercial firms; construction engineers on winter jobs; air transport companies; military and naval operations; and the public generally. The meteorologist may specialize in: Daily weather forecasting; synoptic meteorology; meteorological instruments and measurements; physical and dynamic meteorology; long range weather forecasting; or climatology."

Weather Observer as Defined in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (56)

"Weather Observer; cooperative observer; observer (profess. and kin.) 0-66.88. Observes and records weather conditions for use in forecasting trends and changes in weather; observes local weather conditions in terms of general visibility, temperature, and amount and time of precipitation; takes readings of various instruments which record meteorological data, such as atmospheric pressure, humidity and barometric changes; calculates wind direction and velocity with instruments sometimes releasing a balloon to obtain readings at various altitudes; converts these observations into usable form, employing mathematical scales and tables, and records them with data from other observation posts on weather maps, using standard meteorological symbols."

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THE OUTLOOK FOR WOMEN IN METEOROLOGY

Through their weather forecasts and climatic studies, meteorologists in the United States guard the health and welfare of the people. Many groups, especially those engaged in farming, forestry, floodcontrol, aviation, and national defense, are often completely dependent upon the weather reporting services of the United States Weather Bureau and of other agencies, not only for their livelihood, but sometimes for their very lives. Although there probably were never more than 150 to 200 professional women meteorologists in the United States even during the war, their work in that period demonstrated their ability in this important field.

Prewar Distribution

Before the war, there were approximately 1,000 meteorologists in the United States (65). However, only about 400 were considered to have had full professional training, among them about a dozen women (7) (36). Most meteorologists were working for the United States Weather Bureau; others were teaching in colleges and universities or were forecasting flight conditions for airlines. A few were employed by private forecasting agencies which serviced particular or specialized needs in industry or agriculture, and a few were working independently as weather consultants.

With the development of aviation and the increasing demand for weather reporting services, the United States Weather Bureau expanded rapidly in the decade before the war. In 1939, nearly 600 meteorologists were working in the hundreds of weather stations maintained by the Weather Bureau (65). In the Washington, D. C., office, 4 or 5 women were doing scientific or technical work, but only 1 or 2 of these were trained in meteorology. There were some women among the many hundreds of subprofessional workers also employed by the Weather Bureau as meteorological aids and meteorological observers in weather stations located in all parts of the United States and in Alaska. In addition to these paid employees more than 5,000 men and women acted as volunteer amateur weather observers for the Weather Bureau, aiding in the daily recording of temperature, rainfall, prevailing winds, and other weather phenomena (73). With the assistance of these subprofessional meteorological aids and ama

teur weather reporters, stationed in all parts of the country, meteorologists in the United States Weather Bureau, in addition to their general weather reporting and forecasting services, were able to render such special services as issuing warnings of impending fruitfrost, hurricanes, or floods and aiding in the prevention of forest fires and crop destruction (51). The Bureau of Agricultural Economics and the Soil Conservation Service of the Department of Agriculture and the Bureau of Standards in the Department of Commerce also employed some meteorologists who were engaged in climatological or instrument research.

Just before the war, about 100 meteorologists were teaching in colleges and universities, usually in geology, geography, or physics departments, rather than in separate departments of meteorology (65). Only a few schools, like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the California Institute of Technology, New York University, the University of Chicago, and the University of California at Los Angeles, offered an extensive curriculum in meteorology (50). It is likely that most of the dozen women meteorologists doing professional work before the war were teaching in colleges and universities (36). Only one woman meteorologist was employed by the airlines, where about 125 meteorologists were responsible for interpreting weather data and forecasting flight conditions for certain air routes (65).

Annual Addition to the Supply

Because of the limited number of meteorological jobs available before the war, only about 75 bachelor's degrees and one or two doctor's degrees were awarded annually in meteorology (31) (20). Five institutions of higher education offered advanced training toward a master's degree in meteorology for students with a strong undergraduate major in mathematics or physics (1). Very few women were actively interested in the science of meteorology, and because they were so scarce, they were sometimes handicapped by their conspicuousness (36).

Wartime Changes

During the war, weather data became highly strategic military information. A week after Pearl Harbor, radio stations ceased broadcasting daily weather reports, and only in the advent of storm was there any mention of weather over the air (72). However, the demand for meteorological data for use by the military forces, the Federal Government, and certain war industries increased so tremendously that thousands of persons with any training at all in meteorology were required almost immediately. This also increased the demand in

colleges and universities where professional meteorologists were needed to train others.

Instructors in meteorology had to be drawn from the existing supply, so that many of the highly trained meteorologists temporarily abandoned their research activities in the universities or their usual positions in the Federal Government to train weather officers and meteorologists for the Army, the Navy, and the United States Weather Bureau (74). By December 1942, the number of full-time faculty members teaching meteorology had more than doubled, according to a survey of the National Roster of Scientific and Specialized Personnel, which reported 324 instructors including 28 women, almost 9 percent of the total (60).

Meanwhile, other well-trained meteorologists remained at the United States Weather Bureau to guide its wartime reorganization and increased activities. The Bureau issued new and enlarged forecast services and studies, assisted in the coordination and consolidation of civilian and military weather stations, organized a central weather analysis unit in Washington, and encouraged the development of meteorological facilities in neighboring countries. In order to furnish these increased services and to replace staff members leaving for civilian training programs or military service, the Weather Bureau hired meteorologists not eligible for military service and newly trained women graduates (52). During the war the Weather Bureau employed over 800 meteorologists, including about 20 women who were hired at the beginning professional level, for work in the analysis center (concerned with the drawing and interpretation of weather maps) and in the hydrometeorological section of the central office in Washington (concerned with the analysis of rainfall data) (65). None of these women was engaged in weather forecasting, since they lacked the experience required for such responsible work. At the subprofessional level, hundreds of women were hired and trained, until altogether about 1,500 women were employed as meteorological aids and meteorological observers, in some 500 Weather Bureau stations in the United States and Alaska. They took hourly readings from instruments and recorded temperature, humidity, wind speed, and direction for Weather Bureau reports in code. Although routine in nature, their work required good judgment and ability to make observations of the visible elements. It also involved around-the-clock reporting, because the Weather Bureau must maintain service 24 hours a day, and women meteorological aids and observers, like the men, rotated on all 3 shifts, in all kinds of inclement weather. Their work enabled the Weather Bureau to maintain its services without loss of efficiency during the crucial years of the war.

At the same time, meteorologists in the Army Air Forces and the Navy were issuing weather forecasts for specific military operations and were preparing special reports for theater commanders to aid in the planning of air routes, bombing programs, convoy-protection systems and in the selection of seasons suitable for attack and invasion (45). Some of the women in the armed forces also were assigned to professional and subprofessional work in meteorology. About 10 percent of the Navy forecasters were WAVE officers stationed at air stations and in weather centrals (65). Women serving as aerology officers (weather officers) prepared forecasts and climatic reports for air and naval operations; briefed pilots on weather conditions; abstracted and prepared aerological publications; and assisted in the preparation of analyses for battles and campaigns from a weather standpoint. A few became specialized in certain fields. For example, one woman who had been teaching for 9 years before her appointment as an assistant aerology officer specialized in the analysis of current weather maps for the land and ocean areas of the Pacific, for use by naval units. Another woman who had been teaching mathematics for many years became an instructor in the Naval School for Aerographers' Mates and was later assigned to special research in meteorological communication. Enlisted Waves also formed about 10 percent of those engaged in subprofessional naval meteorological duty, as aerographers' mates. These enlisted Waves made weather observations, computed pilot balloon soundings, and plotted weather charts in naval meteorological offices ashore (65). Similarly, in the Army Air Forces, Wacs who had qualified for training in premeteorology or advanced meteorology served as weather observers, meteorological plotters, and meteorologists.

Despite severe restrictions during the war, air-line traffic, mail, and other cargoes handled by the commercial air lines increased. The number of persons employed in air-line operations more than doubled (53). By 1945, several hundred meteorologists were working for the domestic and international air lines, among them, for the first time, some women (54). Most of these women had 2 to 4 years of college work supplemented by 3 to 6 months' intensive training before they were assigned to work in meteorology departments. Some ultimately advanced to positions as junior meteorologists (22).

Interest in private forecasting services increased during the war, and many industries indicated that they would purchase such services. But military demands had priority, and very few meteorologists remained in private practice during the war.

The need for more training facilities in meteorology had become. apparent even before the outbreak of the war. The regular 4- and 5