overhead. The voice of the hen-bird when her brood is in danger, rises almost to a falsetto, and she breaks forth into a rapid and practically incessant ka-ka-ka, while wheeling to and fro along the face of the cliff. This note, quite unmistakable, may be taken as sure evidence that the nest is near. The cries peculiar to early spring, the festal season, are many and varied, but these baffle any attempt at reproduction. 'They've been calling bravely,' said my old friend the moor-man, one day, for sheer lack of more descriptive phrase, and, with the whole dictionary at my disposal, it does not seem possible to go one better. As talkative as a raven in springtime,' would make an apt simile.

The challenging croak of the male bird does not necessarily proceed from fear for the brood. An old raven is like a surly old watch-dog, resentful of anything that he is pleased to consider an intrusion upon his own domain, and as jealous of his store of gruesome relics as any dog of his bone. The stranger who unwittingly ventures upon forbidden ground, is frequently puzzled by the indignant behaviour of the old autocrat, and, before becoming acquainted with his idiosyncrasies, I wasted a considerable amount of time searching rocks and scrubs for imaginary nests, when the sole trouble in reality arose from some old bone or corpse of a rabbit which Mr Corax had concealed in a convenient crevice for future consumption. How often in this life do we worry ourselves and others unnecessarily !

It is little wonder that old tradition appoints the raven, keen-sighted, watchful, courageous, and uncompromising, the Keeper of our shores. The ocean cliffs and the mountain-tops will be the poorer for his passing, if pass he must. May he long survive to patrol the wind-ways, and guard our high places in his own strange, interesting way!

DOUGLAS GORDON.

Art. 6.-SIXTY YEARS OF CANADIAN PROGRESS, 1867-1927.

THE life of a nation can least of all be estimated in terms of time. Were such a criterion valid sixty years would form a poor enough standard. When, however, we survey the Dominion of Canada, with the flush of youth still on its face, it can, I think, be said without fear of contradiction that its constructive accomplishments are, if not quite exceptional, at least remarkable and outstanding. Within sixty years, we have built up a satisfied and prosperous community, and that in spite of difficult geographical and economic differences within and the compelling pressure of the wealthiest country in the world as our only neighbour. We have satisfactorily solved political problems of a domestic and imperial nature which once were the nightmare of statesmen and of political philosophers alike. We have established a high standard of individual and public virtue. We have taken our place in a gigantic struggle for freedom and paid such a price as youth never before paid in history for the preservation of liberty. Of course, no foolish claim is made that we have not made mistakes. We have had our share of broken public faith, of errors in economic policy, of interpreting booms' as normal developments. We have often left undone those things which we ought to have done and have done those things which we ought not to have done.' All this, however, is merely to state the historical commonplace that we have been human as other nations. The remarkable thing, however, is that, with many shortcomings crowded into comparatively few years, there remain such achievements as to leave plenty of virile health within us. I shall attempt to survey these sixty years from various selected points of view: (a) population; (b) economic developments and potentialities; (c) our 'spiritual' life; (d) our political outlook, connecting each subject with some of the problems and issues which lie ahead.

The first Dominion census took place in 1871, the last in 1921. In the former year the population was 3,689,257, in the latter 8,788,483, representing an increase of over 138 per cent. It is important to view the census of 1921

from a comparative angle. The population of Canada in 1921 represented an increase of over 21.95 per cent. in ten years. When we compare this percentage with that for the United States, for England and Wales, for Scotland, for Australia, and for New Zealand during the years 1911 to 1921, we find that Australia alone grew more rapidly with an increase of 22:04 per cent. Our estimated population to-day is over 9,250,000. We must acknowledge that the figures are a disappointment compared with our remarkable progress from 1901-11 when the population increased 34.17 per cent. On the other hand, as we look back we may well be thankful that the extraordinary 'boom-days' before the war did not last-indeed, they could not last. In addition, the war itself severely curtailed population developments, while it cost us 60,000 dead and a casualty list of over 220,000 out of an estimated adult male population of 2,150,000, of whom almost half were married. Our war casualties must be taken into careful consideration in forming any judgment in connexion with our population.

Perhaps the next most interesting question is the racial origin of our people which can best be illustrated by a diagram.

Now, it is impossible to view these figures casually and to say that we are in a dangerous position with only 55.40 per cent. of our population of British stock. It is always necessary to remember that Canada is made up of two great stocks, French and British, and that from every cultural point of view our only danger lies with the 16-69 per cent. of foreign origins. Of that percentage we are not afraid. I shall return to this point later.

Another interesting and illuminating point of view is the matter of birthplace of the population.

When it is remembered that we are a young country in rapid processes of development, I think the percentage of our foreign born is remarkably small. More interesting still are the figures for naturalisation. Of the total foreign born resident in Canada in 1921, 57.75 per cent. had become naturalised. Of this group we had 374,024 from the United States, and of these 63.63 per cent. had become naturalised. On the whole question of citizenship Canada compares more than favourably with the United States. It is a remarkable achievement to find at the end of sixty years that, in a country of almost dazzling economic possibilities, we have such a small percentage of foreign born who have not taken out naturalisation papers. The figure 57.75 per cent. should be compared with the figure in 1901 and in 1911. In the former year the percentage of naturalised foreign born was 55.27 per cent. and in the latter year 45.77 per cent. In addition another fact must be remembered in studying the 1921 figures. To-day the percentage would be much higher had we available records for a large group during a recent five years-five years being the time allowed for changing allegiance.

Before leaving this question of assimilation it may be well to give some figures illustrating literacy among the population. The figures from the 1921 census are important.

Total population, 10 years and over.

British-born population, Foreign-born population, 10 years and over. 10 years and over.

Unable to speak English. Unable to speak English. Unable to speak English.

15.21 per cent.

15.71 per cent.

11.79 per cent.

In other words, 84.79 per cent. of the total population in 1921 over ten years of age could speak English. These figures are all the more impressive when it is recalled that Canada is a federation based on a bilingual system, that French is with English the official federal language, and that 27.91 per cent. of the population is of French origin. Other figures tell their own tale.

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This figure-5.10 per cent.-includes Indians; and if they were excluded the total percentage over ten years of age totally illiterate is 4.49 per cent. If it were necessary, the above nativity' groups could be broken up into 'age' groups, and such a process would disclose, according to the Dominion statistician, that the 'practical extinction of illiteracy in Canada is in sight.' He also points out that 50 per cent. of the illiterate persons in Canada reside in areas containing only 18 per cent. of the population, while 11 per cent. of the illiterates are residents of areas containing 1 per cent. of the population.' It would be superfluous further to analyse the situation. I venture to think that the figures, etc., which I have quoted in relation to the population speak for themselves. We do not resent criticism, provided we receive credit for achievements in this connexion which will bear extraordinarily favourable comparisons with the United States, with which comparison is alone possible and valid.

The transition at this point from population to the whole question of immigration is natural. Once more I wish to present some figures, prefacing them, however, with the sound words of our statistician:

'Immigration to Canada, as to other new countries, is generally greatest in "boom" periods when capital as well as labour is leaving the older countries for the newer in order to secure the more remunerative investments generally to be