lows after.

The narrative follows the course of events, but in

both cases the catastrophe is reserved till the last.

Illustrations of the dramatic opening may be found in Richard the Third, Julius Cæsar, and Hamlet.

There are exceptions to this.

Sometimes in the drama there is a preliminary narrative. This is frequent in the plays of Euripides. The narrative is, however, but brief, and the moment it is ended the action begins with dramatic abruptness.

Sometimes the drama follows the narrative order, as in some of Shakespeare's historical plays.

Sometimes narrative follows the dramatic order.

This, however, is a mere device or artifice of the writer, and the reader always feels that it "reads like a play."

Examples of the difference between narrative and dramatic writing in this respect may be seen by comparing any of Shakespeare's plays with one of the same plays turned into narrative, as in the "Tales from Shakespeare." It may also be seen by witnessing the dramatic representation of some popular novel. The characters remain but in part; many are left out; those which remain are modified strangely; and the order of thought is totally changed. This change is so great that it seems like another work altogether.

$355. GENERAL RULE FOR THE ORDER OF THOUGHT. Finally, in all kinds of composition there is one rule for the order of thought, which is almost invariable. This is, that the most important thing must be reserved until the last.

Thus, in prose, poetic fiction, and the drama, the catastrophe must be in the last place, and all the rest must lead up to it.

In exposition the strongest argument must be kept till the last, and all the other arguments must lead up to it.

CHAPTER VII.

ARGUMENTS.

$ 356. ARGUMENTS.

THE term argument is susceptible of various applications. Sometimes it means merely the arrangement of subject-matter -as the argument of a poem. At other times it is used as synonymous with method. It is employed here in its stricter signification, and means the use of one or more facts or statements as evidence of some other fact or statement.

§ 357. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RHETORIC AND LOGIC WITH

REGARD TO ARGUMENT.

There is a difference to be observed between rhetoric and logic with regard to arguments.

The province of rhetoric is the finding of suitable arguments and the proper arrangement of them to prove a given point. The province of logic, on the other hand, is not to invent, but to judge of such arguments. Thus rhetoric has reference to the formation of the "plot" of a novel, the "outline" of an essay, the "skeleton" of a sermon, or the "argument" of an oration. Logic, on the other hand, has reference to the critical examination of these. Rhetoric is thus concerned with composition. Logic with criticism.

$358. LOGIC DEFINED.

Logic is defined as the science as well as the art of reasoning, and comprehends, first, the analysis of the mental process which takes place whenever we reason; and, secondly, the rules grounded on that analysis for conducting the process. correctly.

$359. REASONING.

Before entering upon the consideration of arguments, it will be necessary to devote a few remarks to the subject of reasoning in general.

Reasoning comprises various constituent elements, the chief of which are: 1. Terms; 2. Propositions; 3. Definitions; 4. Proof.

§ 360. TERMS.

1. Terms. The operation of reasoning is generally performed by means of words, and a thorough insight into the meaning and purposes of these is essential. All words may be divided into four classes: first, names descriptive of things or acts; secondly, words qualifying names; thirdly, words asserting acts or qualities; fourthly, words qualifying assertions.

$ 361. PROPOSITIONS.

2. Propositions. A proposition is usually defined as a portion of discourse in which a predicate is affirmed or denied of a subject. In rhetorical arguments the word has a wider meaning, and comprehends all statements or affirmations which are supported or enforced by proofs or arguments. These, as we have already seen, are general and particular; the former referring to the leading heads of classification, and the latter to the subordinate. It is very important that these should be put forth in a clear and unmistakable manner. The main proposition should receive special attention, and stand forth with the utmost prominence. An example of this may be found in Sir James Mackintosh's speech on Jean Peltier, where the main proposition is that a writer in England should not be punished in order to avert the resentment of the government of France. So also in the letter of Junius already quoted, the chief proposition is put forth so clearly that it leaves the strongest possible impression on the mind. "The multitude in all countries," he says, "are patient to a certain point. Ill usage may rouse their indignation and hurry them into excesses, but the original fault is in the government." These last words contain the main proposition, which is never lost sight of.

Counter proposition. A common way of establishing a given principle is by answering and refuting its opposite; as when, in advocating free trade, a writer assails protection, or vice This is merely the proposition in another form.

versa.

§ 362. DEFINITIONS.

3. Definitions. A definition is the statement of the meaning

of a word. This is one of the chief requisites to clearness of reasoning, and from its neglect great misapprehension will not unfrequently arise. Important controversies have not seldom been carried on by those who do not really differ very greatly in opinion, but who are misled by their respective interpretations of a given term.

There are various modes of definition.

Ist. The formal definition in set terms, such as those that are found in dictionaries and scientific works.

2d. Definition by contrast, as when heat is defined as the absence of cold, or darkness as the absence of light, or sin as the absence of holiness.

3d. Definition by example or illustration. The drawing of a triangle, the picture of an eagle or a giraffe, are the simplest and clearest ways of conveying an idea of the things in question. For this reason modern dictionaries often supplement their formal definitions with illustrations. But examples and illustrations have a much wider application. By an example is meant a particular instance, as when the case of the rise and fall of mercury in the thermometer is adduced to explain the statement, "heat expands bodies." By illustration is meant an associated fact-a similar or analogous case. These are often made by means of figurative language.

A good example of the definition in oratory is to be found. in Burke's speech on the East India Bill of Fox. In the opening of his argument he considers the objection that the bill is an attack on the "chartered rights of men," and before answering it he introduces an explanation of the phrase.

Proof is based upon two principles-deduction and induction.

By deduction is meant a proof arising from the application of some general law, as when the proposition, "We shall all die," is proved from the general law, "All men are mortal." Deduction is thus the particular application of a more general proposition already established, and it always implies the thing to be proved.

Ronday

2d. Induction.

§ 365. INDUCTION.

Induction is a process of inference by which, from the observation of particulars, we prove other particulars hitherto unknown or unadmitted; or show that what is true of certain individuals of a class is true of a whole class. Thus from the fact that the Earth, Venus, Mercury, and Mars revolve around the sun in an elliptical orbit, we may infer that all the planets of the solar system revolve in the same way.

It has been shown by John Stuart Mill, in his treatise on Logic, that there are four modes of induction by which facts are brought to bear upon the proof of a general proposition. He calls these the four experimental methods.

§ 366. MILL'S FOUR EXPERIMENTAL METHODS OF INQUIRY. 1. Method of agreement.

If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance in which alone all the instances agree is the cause (or the effect) of the phenomenon.

From this we are to understand that when two facts are uniformly associated under many and varied circumstances, they may be regarded as cause and effect. Thus, in comparing cases in which bodies are known to assume crystalline structure, but which have no other point of agreement, we find them to have only one antecedent in common-the deposition of solid matter from a liquid state; from which we conclude that the solidification of a substance from a liquid state is an invariable antecedent of its crystallization. In the same way we observe that the prevalence of immorality is associated with the decline of the human race, in all countries and in all ages, and we consider the one as the cause of the other.

2. Method of difference.

If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every circumstance in common, save one, that one occurring only in the former, the circumstance in which the two instances differ is the effect or the cause, or an indispensable part of the cause, of the phenomenon. From this we see that when two facts