itself as for the purpose of coming back with renewed force; and this is so frequently done that it was formerly set down as a figure of speech under the name of "reditus," or "retrogressio."

Fox, in his speech on the Russian Armament, alludes to Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, and his doctrine of the division of labor, of which he makes a scornful application to the ministry, and then proceeds to a new attack.

Erskine, in his speech on behalf of Hardy, digresses to consider the effect of the accession of Henry IV. on the law of treason, and indulges in a brief summary of the history of the constitution up to that time, after which he returns with fresh vigor to the case in question.

Sir James Mackintosh also, in the case of Jean Peltier, digresses to consider the state of things on the continent of Europe, and then returns to England as the only country where the press is free.

§ 391. REPETITION OF PROPOSITIONS.

5. The importance of repetition has already been considered with reference to words. It also serves to give emphasis to propositions by impressing them upon the mind with renewed force.

Fox, in his speech on the Westminster Scrutiny, gives a remarkable example. In the course of his exordium he

said:

66

'But, sir, I have no reason to expect indulgence, nor do I know that I shall meet with bare justice in this House."

Upon this there arose expressions of disapprobation, whereupon he repeated this with greater emphasis:

'Sir, I have no reason to expect indulgence, nor do I know that I shall meet with bare justice in this House."

He then went on to show that he was warranted in using these words, and repeated them twice again with additional and increasing emphasis, after which he proceeded in the dis

cussion.

This was a peculiarity of the style of Fox, and many other examples may be found in his orations. In the same speech

there occurs the following, which is a repetition of his charge against the high-bailiff, in different words, with greater effect:

"If he has spoken truth in the vestry, he is an arrant liar before the House; or if he vindicated himself before you upon pure principles, he has grossly and wickedly deceived me and all who heard the contempt he expressed in the vestry for that information upon which he expatiated at the bar of this House with such extraordinary reverence."

§ 392. RECAPITULATION.

It re

6. Recapitulation has all the force of repetition. freshes the memory of the hearer, brings up once more those propositions which might be forgotten, and enables the speaker to proceed with renewed force upon the continuation of his argument.

Fox, on the Westminster Scrutiny, makes use of the following recapitulation:

"Having now, Mr. Speaker, gone through the various depositions that have been made before you; having from the evidence shown that the alleged grounds of the high-bailiff's motives were the direct reverse of those he declares to this House to have been his motives-having shown that he was in habits of clandestine intercourse with my opponents—having shown that he was in the constant course of receiving ex parte information in an illicit and shameful secrecy—having shown that he positively and solemnly denied the series of iniquitous proceedings in the vestry which he boldly avows at your bar-having shown that the poll was as much a scrutiny as any poll can possibly be—having explained my views in the event of any demand of a scrutiny-having described the species of intimidation used to this man, and confirmed that, so far from exculpating, it tends greatly to criminate him having shown this, sir, and shown it by the evidence which you have heard at your bar, I shall conclude this part of my evidence with submitting to every man of honor and candor who hears me, whether he really thinks that the high-bailiff of Westminster exercised a sound and honest discretion in granting a scrutiny, supposing for argument's sake that he actually possessed the power to grant it."

CHAPTER IX.

THE INTRODUCTION.

$393. INTRODUCTION.

THE object of the introduction is to prepare the way for the presentation of a work, either by general remarks in order to avoid abruptness, or by particular statements which may have reference to the work itself. The introduction is of many different sorts, and these may be classified, either according to the kind of composition to which they belong, or according to the nature of the introduction itself.

Of these let us first consider the introduction in different kinds of composition.

§ 394. IN NARRATIVE.

In most of the great narrative poems, such as the Iliad, the Æneid, and other epics, the introduction consists of an invocation of the muse. In Dante's Divina Commedia the opening is abrupt. This is the case with many metrical romances, as the Lay of the Last Minstrel, and ballads. A piece of description is sometimes made use of, as in the Lady of the Lake, and again a preliminary reflection, as in the Siege of Corinth.

The opening in history is generally explanatory. In Herodotus the introduction proper is remarkably simple: "This is an exposition of the historical researches of Herodotus the Halicarnassian." In Thucydides there is a survey of Greece down to the time of the Peloponnesian War, and a statement of the aim and scope of the work. In Gibbon's History the introduction takes up three chapters, and consists of a comprehensive survey of the Roman world in the age of the Antonines.

fiction the varieties are numerous, but they may be

reduced to three grand classes, referring to action, character, or scenery.

Ist. Action. This forms a direct opening, where the author plunges at once into the midst of his story.

2d. Character. Here the story opens with a conversation between some of the characters. It is an imitation of the dramatic mode of treatment, and is more abrupt than the others.

3d. Description. This opening is made up of a description of scenery.

$395. IN THE DRAMA.

The work of the drama may be introduced in various ways, of which the following is a classification :

Ist. Narrative or descriptive. In the ancient plays this was very generally adopted. This is commonly called the prologue, a term which, however, in some cases is applied to preliminary remarks that have nothing to do with the play which they precede.

2d. Characters. Here characters are introduced abruptly, engaged in conversation, as in Hamlet.

3d. Lyric. An opening is sometimes furnished by lyric poetry. The Supplices of Eschylus opens in this way. Macbeth opens with the chorus of the witches. Schiller's Wilhelm Tell is preceded by a song.

§ 396. IN ORATORY.

The introduction in oratory is called the exordium. It is of more importance here than in any branch of composition, and requires more careful handling. Its object may be stated as follows: To prepare the hearer to listen readily to what is to be said by seeking to gain his good-will, his attention, and the desire for further information.

The following are the chief characteristics of the exordium : Ist. A tone of modesty. Insolence, vanity, self-conceit, or self-assertion excite repugnance, and turn the audience against the speaker at the outset; while an air of self-depreciation will have the opposite effect. Thus Erskine says: "Alas, gentlemen, who am I? A young man of little experience," etc.

2d. Conciliation of the hearers by compliment. This is done

by referring to some quality upon which they pride themselves. Demosthenes, in his exordium to the speech on the Crown, alludes to the good feeling of the Athenians towards himself, and their piety towards the gods. St. Paul, in his address to the Athenians, conciliates them by referring to their general religious feeling.

Erskine, in his speech on Hardy, thanks the court for indulgence shown him; and in his speech on Stockdale compliments the jury for their impartiality. This course is especially valuable when the cause is unpopular and the majority are hostile.

3. Sometimes the opposite course is employed, and the audience is boldly defied. This, however, is but rare, and can only be done by a speaker of acknowledged superiority. The best example of this is the exordium of Fox, in his speech on the Westminster Scrutiny. The majority is against him; they are trying to crush him; conciliation is useless; he therefore defies them; he tells them that he expects no indulgence or even justice; he is interrupted, but only reiterates it with greater vehemence; and at length, after repeating it four times, he proceeds with the discussion, having reduced them to silence by his very boldness, and forced them to listen.

4. The presentation of an important point. Demosthenes, in his speech on the Crown, lays stress upon the importance to himself of liberty in the arrangement of his topics, affirming that the adversary should not decide as to the order of thought to be adopted in the defence.

Sheridan, in his speech against Warren Hastings, disclaims any vindictive feeling, and reminds the court that the prosecution does not endanger the life of the accused.

5. A reference is made to something in the occasion or in the course of the previous debate, from which by an easy and natural transition the speaker passes on to his discussion.

Burke, in his speech on Conciliation with America, states that a favorable juncture has arisen in which to review the subject with an unusual degree of care and calmness. The same orator opens his speech on the Nabob of Arcot's Debts with severe strictures upon Mr. Dundas.

Fox is usually very short in the exordium. Thus he opens his speech on the rejection of Bonaparte's Overtures in this