They enter into our common conversation; they form colloquialisms; they make up the rich vocabulary of slang.

In literature the trope is of the highest importance; poetry lives upon it; prose would often be but lifeless without it; nor is any style so cold, bald, and prosaic but that the trope may be found frequently necessary for explanation or illustration.

§ 70. VARIOUS CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIGURES.

Various classifications of the figures of speech have been adopted by the different writers on the subject. The most common are the following:

A. I. Figures of Arrangement.

II. Figures of Conversion, or Tropes.

B. I. Figures of Analogy.

II. Figures of Substitution.

III. Figures of Construction.

IV. Epithetic Figures.

V. Figures resulting from the impassioned and indirect expression
of thought.

C. I. Figures which add beauty to language.
II. Figures which add beauty to thought.

D. I. Figures addressed to the intellect.
II. Figures which affect the passions.

E. I. Figures of Imagination.

II. Figures of Intellect.

III. Coalescent figures, or those which excite at once the imagination and intellect.

F. I. Figures of Sound.

II. Figures of Sense.

G. I. Figures of Similarity.

No one of the above can be said to have met with general adoption. One difficulty will always be felt with any system of classification, and that is, the number of figures which seem equally entitled to a place in different classes. The nature and constitution of figures is such that they must intermingle

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largely; and there will always be a gradual shading off from one to another. Hyperbole and climax are akin to amplification, but almost equally so to those figures which are based upon similarity. The figure parallel may be regarded as equally related to antithesis and comparison. All tropes have so much in common that some combine them into a class by themselves; while others blend them with the general body of figures, and break them up into different classes.

§ 71. THE CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN THIS WORK. The classification adopted here is one which is founded upon the ends or aims of all figures of speech. If we regard such ends or aims, we shall find that they all tend to persuasiveness in the following ways. All figures of speech are used:

1. To present a subject with greater clearness and illustration.

2. To present a subject with increased importance. 3. To present a subject with unusual emphasis.

1. When the aim is clearness and illustration. Here the subject is regarded as standing in some definite relation to some other subject, viz., the relation of contrast, or similarity, or contiguity. By thus considering a thing in association with something else, there arises greater distinctness of view, and a clearer perception of its true character. The figures which are formed upon this basis may be called figures of relativity.

2. When the aim is to present a subject with increased importance. Here the subject is brought before the mind with enlarged dimensions, so that it may receive greater consideration. At the same time other different or opposing subjects may be depreciated; but the augmentation of the one, or the diminution of the other, all tend to produce the same result. These may be called figures of gradation.

3. When the aim is to present a subject with unusual emphasis. Here the subject is brought before the mind with the greatest possible strength and energy, so that by its own force it may produce the desired effect. These may be called figures of emphasis.

CHAPTER II.

FIGURES OF RELATIVITY ARISING FROM THE IDEA OF CONTRAST.

§ 72. FIGURES OF RELATIVITY.-GENERAL DIVISIONS. FIGURES of relativity include, first, those which arise from the idea of contrast; secondly, those which arise from the idea of similarity; and, thirdly, those which arise from the idea of contiguity.

§ 73. FIGURES WHICH ARISE FROM THE IDEA OF CONTRAST. Of these we have first to consider those which arise from the idea of contrast, which consist chiefly of the figures of antithesis.

§ 74. ANTITHESIS DEFINED AND ILLUSTRATED.

By antithesis is meant the comparison of different things. This is a figure which possesses great energy and versatility, and owes its power to the effect of contrast.

The following description of the varied powers of the steamengine may be taken as a general example of antithesis:

"It can engrave a seal, and crush masses of obdurate metal; draw out, without breaking, a thread as fine as gossamer, and lift a ship-of-war like a bauble in the air. It can embroider muslin, and forge anchors; cut steel into ribbons, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of winds and waves."

In this passage extreme delicacy of action is contrasted with gigantic effort, and our conception of the manifold capacity of the steam-engine is made at once stronger and clearer.

With antithesis, the figure called parallel is perfectly identical in form, but different in sentiment; for while antithesis is the comparison of dissimilar things, parallel is the comparison of similar things.

Antithesis is founded upon a deep principle of human nat

ure, by which it is led to feel more strongly the force of things while regarding them in contrast with one another. Everything is most truly estimated by being contemplated in reference to its opposite. In morals, we best appreciate virtue by contrasting it with vice; valor, with cowardice; pity, with ruthlessness. In art, the force of contrast is always felt; the divine face of the Saviour is most effective when contrasted with the fiendish lineaments of his reviler in the Ecce Homo; the pyramid must have a man at its base to reveal its vastness. Thus, in literature, words, which are the names of things, are as effective by contrast as the things themselves.

$75. UTILITY OF ANTITHESIS.

The utility of antithesis to the writer is manifest for the following reasons:

1. Because his ideas may be conveyed most vividly by the force of contrasted expression.

2. Because important words in this way receive the strongest possible emphasis.

3. He is trained by the use of antithesis to great discrimination in the choice of words.

Its effect upon the reader is manifest:

1. Because it makes the strongest impression at the time. 2. It is most easily apprehended and committed to mem

ory.

3. It is retained longest by the memory.

Antithesis has always been a potent force in literature. All the poetry of the Hebrews was written in this form; for this was their only versification. In other literatures we find it occupying a commanding position in ancient and modern times, and used by men of the highest order of genius. Among Greek prose writers it is largely employed by Thucydides; among the Romans by Tacitus. French writers have used it to a degree that has been considered reprehensible, and, in fact, it is the leading characteristic of French prose. Among English authors it has been employed by the wisest and profoundest thinkers. Lord Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, and Ralph Waldo Emerson are distinguished by the great and even the excessive use of this figure. An example is given from each of these:

"Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted,

nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books, also, may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books; else distilled books are like common distilled waters-flashy things."-LORD BACON.

"Thus there are two books from whence I collect my divinity. Besides that written one of God, another of his servant, nature—that universal and public manuscript that lies expansed unto the eyes of all. Those that never saw him in the one have discovered him in the other: this was the Scripture and theology of the heathens; the natural motion of the sun made them more admire him than its supernatural station did the children of Israel. The ordinary effects of nature wrought more admiration in them than in the other all his miracles."-SIR THOMAS BROWNE.

"Our strength grows out of our weakness. Not until we are pricked and stung and sorely shot at awakens the indignation which arms itself with secret forces. A great man is always willing to be little. While he sits on the cushion of advantages he goes to sleep. When he is pushed, tormented, defeated, he has a chance to learn something; he has been put on his wits, on his manhood; he has gained facts; learns his ignorance; is cured of the insanity of conceit, has got moderation and real skill. The wise man always throws himself on the side of his assailants. It is more his interest than it is theirs to find his weak point. The wound cicatrizes, and falls off from him like a dead skin; and when they would triumph, lo! he has passed on invulnerable."-R. W. EMERSON.

§ 76. EFFECTIVENESS OF ANTITHESIS IN VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS

OF LITERATURE.

There is scarcely any department of literature in which antithesis is not effective, as may be seen from the following summary.

I. Proverbs.

A striking proof of the power and popularity of antithesis is seen in the fact that proverbs so frequently assume this form. It is essential that the proverb be quickly grasped by the memory, and long retained. Various other aids are sought, such as rhyme, alliteration, etc.; but none are so common as antithesis. This may be seen from the following examples: "Vox populi, vox Dei." "Man proposes, God disposes." 'Forewarned, forearmed." "Penny wise, pound foolish."

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Out of sight, out of mind." "A bird in the hand is worth

two in the bush." All the proverbs of Solomon, and the majority of all others, are antithetical in their form.