of wine, thick, foaming, and poisonous." Of Deut. xxxii. 33 he says, "Khamath taanaim yaynahm, this wine is the poison of dragons -venenum draconum; sermo quo delectantur est noxious, pessimus." (e) Yayin was also applied to every species of fermented grapejuice. The characters of fermentation are well marked in Prov. xxiii. 31, where it is described as 'red' and 'sparkling,' in which condition we are forbidden even to look upon it with desire. Not in one-half of the 141 texts, however, can it be shown that such wine is the kind to which the word is applied, by anything in the context. Yayin, then, being accepted as a general term, it would follow that we should expect, as time went on, that specific terms would be adopted to designate special kinds or states of wine, and this is exactly what we find to be the case in the later books.

2. Opy, ahsis, occurs in five texts,-Cant. viii. 2; Isa. xlix. 26; Joel i. 5; iii. (Heb. iv.) 18; Amos ix. 13. The word is plainly connected with ahsas, 'to tread,' and denotes 'something trodden out.' It is grape-juice purely; and never seems to have acquired the ambiguous meaning of the Greek gleukos and the Latin mustum, which were undoubtedly sometimes applied to the juice of grapes in an initial state of fermentation. Joel iii. 18, the mountains shall drop down new wine' (ahsis), is not all a figure. Pallas says, in 1793, of the grapes in the Hungarian vintage, "In August they ripen, burst, and begin to evacuate their juice. The Shirnoi contains a rich juice, and bursts when ripe."-(Travels, i. p. 314.) Professor Douglas rightly says that "the passage, 'they shall be drunken with their own blood as with sweet-wine,' is no proof that must, which is unintoxicating, cannot here be meant; for neither is blood intoxicating: but all the meaning that the verb conveys is, to drink till one is satiated or cloyed. 'Ahsis of the Pomegranate' is an evidence that the word was sometimes used in that width of meaning which the etymology sanctioned."-(Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary, p. 1097. Glasgow, 1866.)

3. NO, soveh or sobhe, from sabha, 'to drink to satiation,' occurs but thrice. It is chiefly interesting as affording a link of connection between classical wines and those of Judea, through an obviously common name, being identical with the Greek hepsema, the Latin sapa, and the modern Italian and French sabe, 'boiled grape-juice.' The inspissated wines called defrutum and syræum were, according to Pliny (xiv. 9), a species of it: the last name singularly suggests the instrument in which it was prepared-the syr or caldron (Nahum i. 10). "The property of organic substances," says Liebig, "to pass into a state of decay, is annihilated in all cases by heating to the boiling-point." Columella tells us of the kind of degeneration to which such preparations were subject. "Defrutum, however carefully made, is liable to grow acid" (xii. 20). To this corresponds the statement of Hos. iv. 8-'Their sove is sour.'

Such

preparations are made in great quantities in the East, in Calabria, and in the south of France, to this day. (See Works of Dr Lees, ii. P. 144.)

4., khamar, is the Chaldee equivalent of the Hebrew yayin, and occurs only in Ezra and Daniel. Its derivation is from the Hebrew khemer (see Deut. xxxii. 14; Psa. lxxv. 8), which may be translated foaming, or turbid, or as we say in English, 'yesty,' barmy, scummy. It has, therefore, a very wide application, and its meaning comprehends 'all sorts of wine,' without shutting us up to any in par

ticular.

5. V, khometz, is simply 'sour-wine,' vinegar, ‘sick-wine,' wine 'gone' sour. It was, no doubt, chiefly applied to the thin sour drink made from the last pressure of the grapes, with water added, and was, like the Roman posca, something halfway between ginger-beer and French vin-ordinaire. In the East, the term koumiss is applied to fermented, sour mare's or camel-milk. The word had a somewhat broad application to sour and fermented things.

6., tirosh, is not 'wine' at all, but 'the fruit of the vineyard' in its natural condition. The vine says, 'Shall I leave my tirosh? They shall tread tirosh, but shall not drink yayin.' Nothing but a foregone conclusion, fostered by the mistranslation of ancient and modern versions-versions which traditionally sustain and deceive each other-could have hindered scholars from perceiving the true sense of this word. Neither Versions nor Lexicons, however, have been consistent. The Septuagint, the Chaldee Targums, the Syriac, Arabic, Vulgate, etc., have, in one text or another, rendered the word as 'berry,' 'vines,' 'vintage,' 'fruit,' 'grapes,' etc. On Micah vi. 15, Julius Bate, M. A., in his 'Critica Hebræa,' 1767, observes, "Hence it is plain that tirosh is what is pressed, the grapes." Gesenius, in three texts, renders it 'grapes,' and so others.

Tirosh is perhaps correctly derived from yarash, 'to possess, to inherit,' just as Hierusalem is from yerash and salem = 'possession of peace.' Drusius, in 1617, commenting on Gen. xxvii. 28, observes that "the idea of 'possession' is implied in tirosh, because amongst those things which a man possessed by inheritance, vintage-produce was the chief, and received this name by way of distinction."*

The note in Kitto's 'Pictorial Bible' (Ed. 1847), objecting to our derivation, alleges that "the grape could not be more important to the Jews than the gooseberry to us"! and further, that it is "unlikely that the solid products of the vine should be so conspicuously placed beside corn"!! If the reader will peruse three texts, selected at intervals, he will perceive how very far vinous prejudice will lead critics to ignore the plainest facts. Numb. xvi. 14, “Given us inheritance of fields and vineyards." Lev. xxvi. 4, 5, "The land shall yield its produce [corn], the trees give their fruit. Your threshing [of corn] shall reach unto your vintage." Isa. xvi. 9, "Joy is taken out of the plentiful field; in the vineyards there shall be no shouting.' In Micah vi. 15, sowing seed of corn, and treading olives and grapes, all occur together, side by side. What is the present condition of things in Bible lands? The Rev. Smylie Robson, missionary at Damascus, thus writes, after noticing corn and olives:-"The fruit of the vine is the only other kind which can

Those who give to the word the meaning of mustum, grape-juice, and then add, by way of explanation, that it is "a strong wine which gets possession of a man's head, and drives him out of himself," not only invent a fiction and contradict demonstrable facts, but contravene the clear context of every passage wherein the word occurs, which in no instance whatever is connected with inebriety. Out of thirty-eight texts in which tirosh is found, in thirty it is associated with corn (not bread), in one (Micah vi. 15) with olives, in twenty-one with orchard-fruit, and in twenty with both corn and fruit. It is never once connected with shemen, oil,' though Smith's Bible Dictionary' erroneously states the contrary; it is only thrice found in the company of wine,' and then by way of distinction, as a different thing; and it is constantly associated with dew,' 'rain,' 'dryness,' and other conditions affecting natural growth.' Within the compass of philology there is hardly any word which, by the conjoint evidence of etymology, context, and circumstance, is more clearly shown to be a collective term expressive of a class of natural produce. The notion that tirosh signifies the same as ahsis, or the alternative supposition, that this latter should have been invented when the former was in constant use for the same idea, is simply incredible.

12, dahgan, denotes growing 'corn' in general, and not some species of grain, as 'wheat' or 'barley,' has never been questioned. That it denotes an artificial preparation like 'bread' or 'cake' has never been imagined. Yet this term is found in perpetual association, under common natural conditions favoring or opposing growth and increase, with tirosh., yitzhar, is a second term, twenty-one times used in connection with tirosh. It is derived, as Dindorf, Gesenius, and others admit, from a root signifying to shine,' 'glisten,' like the Spanish term azahar, 'orange-flower,' and the Latin aurantium, for the shining orange class of fruits. The oliveyards also shine and glisten in the sun; hence we have suggested 'olive-and-orchard-fruit' as the English equivalent of yitzhar, completing a beautiful triad of natural blessings (1) Corn-fruit, (2) Vine-fruit (3) Orchard-fruit; or, in other words, the produce of field, vineyard, and orchard. Agreeing with Professor Douglas, that "a common derivation of tirish from the verb to 'take possession,' because it intoxicates, is too arbitrary to deserve serious refutation" ("Imperial Bible Dictionary,' p. 1097), we accept the sense of 'vine-fruit' as that demonstrated by induction, and giving a meaning which at once fits every context and honors the Divine word. (For further evidence, see Works of Dr Lees,' vol. ii.)

From August

be said to form a substantial part of the food of the people. to December, bread and grapes are, substantially, the food of the people. It is perfectly safe to eat grapes constantly to satiety. Grapes are dried in large quantities. There is another form in which the fruit of the vine is preserved for use. By pickling and beating, a substance_called dibs [debhash, artificial honeycake] is made out of the grapes. .. It is only ignorance which would pare away and attenuate scriptural expressions."-Missionary Herald of the Presby. terian Church in Ireland, 1845. See this testimony more at length on page 93 of the Notes.

7. ?, yeqev (Arab. 'UKEB, cavum esse), originally a 'cavity,' 'coop. or vat in which grapes or olives were put for the purpose of being trodden; but perhaps, secondarily, by becoming generic for the whole apparatus (tota machina), the lacus or cavity into which the wine and oil flowed (in quem VINUM expressum defluit). So Dindorf, who cites Hesychius-LEENOS hopou staphulee pateitai. Gesenius also accepts the double sense of yeqev. J. D. Paxton, the American, says of Bhadoom, "Several [fruit] houses seem to be common property, where they express the juice of the grape. They have a row of large vats, into which the grapes are thrown; and beside these some stone troughs, into which the juice flows. Men get into the vats, and tread the grapes. They take the juice from the troughs and put it into large boilers, reduce it to one-half" (Travels, p. 215). Capt. Colville Frankland says of Solima, "The grapes are trodden out upon a kind of stone platform; the juice, running off through a little channel, is received in a basin cut in the rock, from whence it is carried in buckets to the boiler, where it is skimmed, and allowed to cool. It is boiled and cooled twice, and then put into great earthen jars, and becomes a rich syrup" (Travels, ii. p. 10, 1827). Prof. Murphy of Belfast, in order to prove the liquidity of tirosh, has narrowed the sense of yeqev to that of the must-lake,' or hypoleenos, but without any reason or even good authority. It occurs sixteen times, and in most of the texts is more appropriately referred to the upper than the under vat. In Numb. xviii. 27, 30; Deut. xv. 14; xvi. 13; 2 Kings vi. 27; Hos. ix. 2, it is associated with corn' and the threshing-floor.' In Job xxiv. 11 it is plainly the place of treading shriveled grapes that yield no wine to quench thirst. In Isa. v. 2 it is used for the whole of the apparatus, not for part of it-much less for the last part to the exclusion of the first! In Isa. xvi. 10, to avoid giving to 'yayin' its natural contextual sense of grape, the translators are compelled to insert 'out' and 'into'! In Jer. xlviii. 33 there is no need to understand liquid wine,' but 'gathered-wine,' of which the prophet speaks in chap. xl. In Hos. ix. 2 it is associated with 'feeding.' In Joel iii. 13 it is conjoined as a general term with, gath, probably this having reference to the oil (shemen Gethsemene), and yeqev to grape-fruit, which, in its abundance, is awaiting the 'treading.' In Hag. ii. 16 it is associated with E, poorah, and with 'heaps' of corn and fruit. "When one came to the yeqev to take fifty (clusters), the poorah, 'THE FRUIT-HOUSE,' had but twenty." A more baseless assumption than that yeqev signifies either often or solely the winetrough, was never made in support of another baseless assumptionviz., that tirosh was the liquid trodden out, and not the fruit 'trodden.' 8. 799 mesek, 'a mixture,' is of course applicable to many mixtures; of wine with water, or with aromatics, or with drugs. The verb is used in Prov. ix. 2, where 'Wisdom mingles her wine,' doubtless with water; certainly not making that 'mixed-wine' in relation to which she pronounces 'woe' to those that 'seek' it. In Cant. viii. 2 we find the kindred term mezeg, translated 'liquor'; and in Prov. xxiii.

30; Isa. lxv. 11, we have memsach, respectively rendered 'mixture' and (inferentially) 'drink-offering.'

9.

ashishah, perhaps from a root signifying 'fire,' denotes a cake of dried grapes. “ "By universal consent," says Prof. Douglas, "it is now understood to be some kind of cake, probably a cake of dried fruit." It occurs in 2 Sam. vi. 19; 1 Chron. xvi. 3; Cant. i. 5; Hos. iii. 1; and is unfortunately rendered 'flagons' and 'flagons of wine.'

10.

, shemarim, 'preserves,' from shamar, 'to preserve,”—as sheminim, fat things,' from shemen, 'fat' or oil. Our oldest translators rendered it better than the modern. Coverdale renders 'sweet things'; the Bishop's Bible (1568), 'delicate things'; Forerius and Grotius, a feast of vine-fruit' (vindemia). Preserves form an essential part of Oriental feasts: They eat the fat (shemen) and drink the sweet' (Neh. viii. 10).

II. , shakar, saccharine drink,' is related to the word for sugar in all the Indo-Germanic and Semitic languages, and is still applied throughout the East, from India to Abyssinia, to the palm sap, the shaggery made from it, to the date-juice and syrup, as well as to sugar and to the fermented Palm wine. It has, by usage, grown into a generic term for 'drinks,' including fresh juices and inebriating liquors, other than those coming from the grape. [See 'Works' of Dr Lees, ii. 1853, Art. 'Strong drink,' Art. 'Wine,' etc., for abundant illustrations, and for refutation of Fuerst's derivation.] Mr Palgrave, in his 'Arabia,' says, having bought for three farthings a handkerchief full of delicious' dates, we hung it up from the roof-beam to preserve the luscious fruit from the ants, and it continued to drop molten sweetness into a sugary pool on the floor for three days together" (i. p. 253). Such a beverage was rightly called shakar, and naturally and necessarily produced that satisfaction and cloying fullness which is well expressed by the cognate verb, and which has its parallel in the history of the corresponding Greek words, methuein from methu, 'sweet wine,' 'mead,' etc. The force of the prophet's words may be understood from considering this, the etymological and primary sense of shakar :

66

'The sweet drink shall become bitter to them that drink it.'

II. Our second proposition assumes a more positive form-viz., that the Bible teaches, clearly and fully, by a series of continuous and consistent testimonies, that intoxicating drink is an evil article; poisonous to the body, seductive to the soul, and corrupting to the

*The views taken of these words were generally adopted in Dr Eadie's Bible Cyclopædia, especially as to tirosk and yitzhar, and the generic sense of shakar and yayin. They were all incorporated in Kitto's Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature (1845), the first Edition, the only one truly called Kitto's; and they have been entirely adopted and admirably sustained in Bastow's Bible Dictionary, and in Dr Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary (1866).