to the United States ambassador at United Nations headquarters. There may be potential difficulties inherent in this duality, but they have not become evident to date.

The North Atlantic Treaty and the mutual defense assistance program

The North Atlantic Treaty brought together the United States, Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, and Portugal with the five Brussels pact countries of the Western Union-the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg-in a mutual defense agreement under which it was declared that "an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all." The treaty provides in such an event, for the possible use of armed force "to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area," as each member shall determine.

The Mutual Defense Assistance Act of 1949 and its 1950 amendments provided for military assistance to three categories of countries. Title I authorized grant aid to the North Atlantic Treaty nations who have requested such assistance from the United States; title II provided for the continuation of programs of military aid to Greece and Turkey, and included as well military assistance to Iran; and title III authorized the provision of military assistance to Korea and the Philippines. Title III also authorized a special emergency fund for the purpose of extending military aid to the "general area of China," and was thus the basis for assistance to Indochina and other parts of the Far East.

Projects authorized under the mutual defense assistance program (MDAP) fall into four groups: Supplying finished components of military equipment, known as end items; training the personnel of foreign nations technically in the use of the equipment that is furnished; partially financing additional military production projects to be undertaken by the foreign countries, commonly known as additional military production; and supplying end items of military equipment on a reimbursable or outright-purchase basis.

The original interdepartmental organizational pattern set up for MDAP was changed in January 1951. The Director, Mutual Defense Assistance, in the Office of the Secretary of State was replaced by the Director of International Security Affairs, also in the Secretary's office, who was given significant additional responsibility within the Department and within the Government as a whole for North Atlantic Treaty and other regional arrangements concerned with mutual defense and supporting economic assistance programs. The Foreign Military Assistance Coordinating Committee (FMACC), composed of the Director of Mutual Defense Assistance from the Department of

State, the Director of the Office of Military Assistance from the Department of Defense, and the Director of Program Relations from the Economic Cooperation Administration, was replaced by the International Security Affairs Committee (ISAC) on which the same agencies are represented, together with representatives of the Department of the Treasury and the Special Assistant to the President (Mr. Harriman).

The new committee operates at a higher level than the former one and unites authority formerly held, not only by the FMACC but also its superior, the steering committee, composed of the heads of the three agencies most concerned. The Director of International Security Affairs in the Department of State is chairman of the new committee. Under the reorganization, the Department of State continues to have primary responsibility for the administration of MDAP in order that the programs may be integrated into the total strategy of American foreign policy and to facilitate the use of the Foreign Service in negotiations with other governments on MDAP affairs. Most of the operational responsibilities continue to be assigned to the Department of Defense. The Economic Cooperation Administration, which previously had been drawn into the MDAP activity mainly in an advisory role to evaluate the impact of increasing military strength on the economy of the nations involved, is now given a more clearly defined role. This largely takes account of the increased emphasis upon the additional military production portion of the program, under which it is necessary to rebuild the armaments industry of western Europe. Since the Economic Cooperation Administration has considerable experience with rebuilding European industry under the Marshall Plan, it is being given added responsibility for European military production.

The recent interdepartmental reorganization required little change within the Department of Defense in the handling of MDAP matters. Its operational responsibilities continue to be carried out through the three military departments, the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Munitions Board. The Office of Military Assistance is the top departmental coordinating staff for military assistance activities and also coordinates with the operations of the Department of State and the Economic Cooperation Administration. Responsibility for the development of program details, for supply and training, and for administrative support is decentralized to the three military services.

The Joint Chiefs of Staff is responsible in connection with military air for making recommendations to the Secretary of Defense regarding strategy and logistics, military objectives, matériel availability and military priorities as between countries and between services. As a further means of integrating the military assistance program in Europe, the Secretary of Defense appointed a military representative

in Europe who in turn established the Joint American Military Advisory Group (JAMAG), with headquarters in London. JAMAG has had two functions: Supervising the military assistance missions in the various western European countries and supplying the American portion of the NATO strategic planning staff. This latter function will probably be transferred to the staff of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), General Eisenhower's headquarters.

Detailed preparation of recommendations on the military assistance programs for each country continues to be the responsibility of the Military Assistance Advisory Groups (MAAGs), attached to United States diplomatic missions in the recipient countries. The MAAGS, in cooperation with the military representatives of the recipient governments, translate program proposals into specific details. These detailed proposals are intended to reflect the general terms for programing as set forth by the International Security Affairs Committee, as well as those of the European regional plans based on strategic concepts for mutual defense developed within the NATO machinery. In each country, the MAAG operates under the surveillance of the United States ambassador; in the European countries the ambassador has a special assistant for the military aid program.

The interdepartmental changes in organization for mutual defense assistance in January 1951 also included changes in the arrangements for participation in the work of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, with the objective of bringing about a closer integration of NATO affairs and MDAP operations. A further stage in organization was reached at the beginning of May 1951, when the internal organization of NATO itself was changed.

The North Atlantic Treaty established the North Atlantic Council, which consisted originally of the foreign ministers of the treaty members. The Council early established two further agencies: The Defense Committee, normally consisting of the defense ministers of the member nations, to draw up unified defense plans; and the Defense Financial and Economic Committee (DFEC) normally composed of the finance ministers, with the responsibility for advising the Council on financial and economic matters. The United States representative on this latter committee was the Special Representative in Europe of the Economic Cooperation Administration. The North Atlantic Council also established the Council of Deputies as its continuous working body, as noted in chapter II.

The Defense Committee in turn established a number of subordinate bodies. Among them was the Military Committee, made up of the chiefs of staff of the member countries. This committee provided general policy guidance and made recommendations on military matters to the Defense Committee and other agencies. The Standing Group,

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composed of military representatives from France, the United Kingdom, and the United States was established to serve as the working agency for the Military Committee. The Military Production and Supply Board (MPSB), replaced in the winter of 1950-51 by the Defense Production Board, was also created to review the military supply situation in the light of matériel requirements, current availability, and increased production needed, and to accelerate deliveries by promoting efficiency in production through standardization and conservation.

The United States has been represented on the North Atlantic Council by the Secretary of State; on the Defense Committee by the Secretary of Defense; and on the Defense Financial and Economic Committee by the Special Representative in Europe for the Economic Cooperation Administration. The same condition of diversity of representation on separate high level bodies existed for other countries and gave a third dimensional pattern to this international organization. The certainty with which a foreign minister may speak for his country depends in a large measure upon the internal coherence of the government of his country.

In Europe, the difficulties inherent in the third dimensional aspect of international military affairs were most clearly evident in those western European countries such as France, Italy, Norway, and the Netherlands, where coalition cabinets were necessary for a working majority in the parliament. Party differences within these cabinets undoubtedly accentuated the difficulty of securing agreement on security questions. These differences were not likely to facilitate the execution of decisions made by the respective ministers within the three NATO committees.

A proposal of the Canadian Government in the autumn of 1950 led to changes put into effect in May 1951. The North Atlantic Council was reorganized to incorporate the functions of the Defense Committee and the Defense Financial and Economic Committee, both of which disappeared as separate entities. It was agreed that heads of governments might attend meetings of the North Atlantic Council in person; ordinarily governments will be represented by their foreign ministers, defense ministers, or other competent ministers, according to the nature of the agenda. The full Council will usually meet once a year at the time when the General Assembly of the United Nations is in session. At other times, the work will be carried on by the Council Deputies, who will continue to have their headquarters in London. The military structure of NATO was somewhat changed to take account of the disappearance of the Defense Committee. The Council Deputies will deal directly with the Military Committee, and, when it is not in session, with the Standing Group. The Standing Group will provide advice to the Deputies on military matters, while the

Deputies will provide the military bodies with political guidance upon which strategic decisions are to be based.

These changes should facilitate integration between the United States efforts in NATO and the administration of military aid through the mutual defense assistance program. Strategic plans prepared by NATO military planning bodies depend in large measure upon United States military aid.

Organizationally, the two activities will reach a focus abroad in the office of the Deputy United States Representative, North Atlantic Council, and in the interdepartmental regional arrangements in Europe which he heads. In Washington, the point of integration is the office of the Director of International Security Affairs in the Department of State and the International Security Affairs Committee (ISAC) of which he is chairman. The Department of Defense is represented on that committee by the Assistant to the Secretary for International Security Affairs, under whom there has been created, as noted earlier, an Office of North Atlantic Treaty Affairs in addition to the Office of Military Assistance.

As its title indicates, the Office of North Atlantic Treaty Affairs acts for the Secretary by following NATO affairs in which the Department of Defense has a concern. This involves preparing the views of the Department on various position papers for the direction of United States representatives on NATO bodies; advising the Secretary on the progress of matters pending before the NATO Council and its principal bodies; and providing representatives on interdepartmental committees concerned with NATO affairs.

Responsibilities for the administration of occupied areas

Responsibilities for occupied area administration were divided between the Department of State and the War Department in 1945, as indicated in chapter II. The Department of State had the responsibility for formulating policy while the execution of policy was the responsibility of the War Department, later the Department of the Army, operating through the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the theater commanders. This placed a burden on the military they admittedly were ill-equipped to assume. Army personnel, skilled in practicing military science, found themselves attempting to practice the "exceedingly troublesome art" of government. In situations where the function of government is to impose the will of the conqueror upon the conquered, the most skillful practice of the art of government is challenged.

The State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee (SWNCC) was established in 1944 for the purpose of coordinating civilian and military points of view with respect to various matters, including policy for civil affairs, military government, and occupied areas activities under