THE absolute predestination of man and all earthly events is a fundamental doctrine of the Muhammadan faith. No one who has associated ever so slightly with Moslems, but must have perceived how profound is their conviction of its truth. "It is my fate," is the simple and sufficient philosophy which for a Moslem accounts for and mitigates the severest ills of life. Nevertheless, in the Koran, the teaching even of this cardinal doctrine is variable and inconsistent. The Koran, it cannot be too often insisted upon, is merely a collection of fragmentary utterances which extend over a period of three-and-twenty years. It is almost wholly destitute of method or system. Muhammad put forth his revelations according to the needs of the moment; and only late in life did he attempt to give something like logical consistency to his theology. It was then that he laid down the principle, which has done such yeoman's service ever since, that where two revelations contradict one another, the later abrogates the earlier. The changes in doctrine, reflecting the changes in his situation,

are in no instance better exemplified than in this of Fatalism.

In his early exhortations there are few, if any, traces of the doctrine of Fatalism. Muhammad, at that time, was full of hope and onlooking thoughts. He summoned men to repent and believe, in the confident expectation that they would eagerly respond to his call. It is plain, that so long as he entertained this expectation, the doctrine of man's free will would form a part of his teaching. He could not call upon men to reform their ways, and in the same breath assert that they had no power to do so. Consequently, in these early addresses, the free will of man and the responsibility resulting thence are everywhere implied. It is by a life of freely-chosen moral excellence that heaven is to be gained and hell avoided. The ransoming of captives, the distribution of food, and a fervent trust in God as "the most just of judges"—such are the acts and state of mind which mark the true Believer.

"As to him who giveth alms, and feareth God,

And yieldeth assent to the good,

To him shall we make easy the path to happiness.
But as to him who is covetous, and bent on riches,
And calleth the good a lie,

To him will we make easy the path to misery."

Sura xcii. 5—11.

But when Muhammad found that his appeals knocked unavailingly at the obdurate hearts of the Kuraish, he was compelled to fall back upon the doctrine of Fatalism to explain his ill success.

A new

conception was put forth of the relations subsisting

between God and man. God, now, is He who "breathes into the soul its wickedness and piety," The Faithful must not be discouraged by the invincible scepticism of their fellow-tribesmen, nor thereby be tempted to infer that the teaching of the Prophet was in fault. Nor, on the other hand, are the scoffers to imagine they will escape the damnation of hell because their reasons are not persuaded by the appeals of Muhammad. They are, though they know it not, as so much clay in the hands of the potter. "God misleads whom He pleases, and whom He pleases He places upon the straight path." "No soul can believe but by the permission of God, and He shall lay His wrath upon those who do not understand." "As to the infidels... their hearts and their ears hath God sealed up, and over their eyes is a covering. For them a severe chastisement." "And whom God shall please to guide, that man's breast will He open to Islam; but whom He shall please to mislead, strait and narrow will He make his breast, as though he were mounting up into the very heavens. Thus doth God inflict dire punishment on those who believe not."

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As his life drew to a close, Muhammad insisted with increasing vehemence on this doctrine of predestination. To those who murmured at the sanguinary defeat of Ohod, saying, "Were we to have gained aught in this affair, none of us had been slain at this place," the Prophet replied, "Had ye remained in your homes, they who were decreed to be slain would have gone forth to the places where they lie." God is the possessor of all power, and none can escape Him. He

raises up whom He will, and whom He will He abases. He is over all things potent. It was, therefore, an idle thing for them to hope that they could prolong their lives by an ignominious flight from the battle-field. Before the heavens and the earth were made, the events of each man's life had been predetermined by God, and "noted down in a distinct writing." The arrow of death would strike them when the appointed moment came. In the Traditions, this doctrine is insisted upon in the most uncompromising manner. "There is not one amongst you"-so said the Prophet

"whose sitting-place is not written by God, whether in the fire or in Paradise; " and on another occasion, "Whatever is in the universe is by the order of God, even to understanding and stupidity; and, still more plainly, he is reported to have said, "Whatever happeneth to thee is from fate; and if thou shouldest die without believing in fate, thou most certainly wouldest enter into hell-fire."

The annals of early Moslem history abound with strange and startling indications of the effects of this teaching. When Yezid ibn Mouhalleb is surrounded by enemies, and entreated to save his life by flight, he exclaims, "I care not for them; they cannot delay death if my hour be come, or hasten it if destiny has not so decreed." A Kharijite, noted for his frequent wars and numerous battles, thus encourages his soul in a moment of danger-"I said to myself when I wavered at the sight of the warriors, 'Shame upon thee! fear not! Wert thou to ask the delay of a single day above the term prescribed to thy existence,

thy request would not be heard. Be firm, then, in the career of death, be firm! To obtain an everlasting life is a thing impossible ! These lines, says Ibn Khallikan, “would give courage to the greatest coward God ever created."

Again; it is related that Ziad ibn Abih wrote these words to the khalif Muawia :-" Commander of the Faithful! my left hand holds Irak in submission unto you, but my right is unoccupied, and waits to be employed in your service; appoint me, therefore, governor of Hejaz." This request having reached the ears of Abdallah ibn Omar, who was residing at Mekka, he exclaimed, "O God! withhold from us the right hand of Ziad!" A pestilential swelling immediately broke out on it; and the assembled physicians having advised amputation, Ziad called in Shuraih, the kadi of Koufa, and consulted him on the lawfulness of such an operation. Shuraih returned this answer: "God's bounty towards you has a certain measure, and your life a fixed limit. If you are to live longer in this world, I should not wish to see you without a right hand" (amputation of the right hand being the punishment for thieves laid down in the Koran); "and if the time of your death be now come, you will have to say, when asked by the Lord how you lost your hand, 'It was through dislike of meeting Thee, and to avoid what Thou hadst predestined.' Ziad died that day; and the enemies of the emir reproached Shuraih, because his advice had prevented Ziad from committing a sin, and so lightened the punishment that would fall upon him in the next world. To this the kadi replied, "He