various occasions with the Secretary, and the Secretary continued to confer with the members individually as well.

The original "senior members" of the Group, with the not infrequent addition of Mr. Dunn and Mr. Hackworth, comprised the "consulting group" that began again in the summer of 1943 to accompany Secretary Hull to the White House. The President himself referred to the Secretary and this group as "my postwar advisers" or "my postwar group." It was not always possible for all the members of the "consulting group" to attend the White House discussions, but the number present was normally four or five. The remaining members of the Informal Agenda Group were always informed of such of these discussions as were pertinent to the work as a whole.

The "consulting group" talks with the President were resumed after the Secretary alone had seen the President twice in the month following July 9 to discuss the problems then before the Agenda Group in connection with the Quebec Conference and Mr. Churchill's visit with the President before that Conference. Messrs. Welles, Bowman, Davis, and Pasvolsky joined the Secretary on August 10 for extended discussion with the President of several problems, including colonial policy, general international organization, and the type of agreement to be sought among the major powers. On the latter, the consensus was that such an agreement should take the form of a declaration. Another extensive discussion at the White House was held before the Moscow Conference, on October 5. The Secretary was accompanied by Messrs. Stettinius, Dunn, Hackworth, and Pasvolsky. In this consultation the same problems and also broad questions relating to Germany and several other individual countries were covered.

When the Informal Agenda Group convened on December 9, 1943, in its first meeting after the negotiation of the Moscow Declaration, it decided to prepare within two weeks basic proposals on a general international organization for recommendation to the Secretary. This decision was made in the light of already clear pressures for a general position on the matter and in anticipation of the wishes of the President, who, on December 21, requested an early recommendation. With this undertaking, the Group entered the second and principal phase of its work, and became the Informal Political Agenda Group. Various experts, never many, from the postwar staff and elsewhere in the Department now began for the first time to attend the meetings of the Group. Thereafter the Group, usually but not always, included specialists in the international organization field.

Before discussing in detail the Group's conduct of this second phase of its work, however, three other developments of related interest in the second half of 1943 will be described. These were the summarization of the views of the Advisory Committee and its subcommittees, adjustments at the expert level for departmental work on the problems

of countries, and adjustments for coordination of interdepartmental work on economic problems. All represented efforts to prepare more rapidly for international negotiations. All represented also the onset of heightened specialization in the postwar preparation as it drew closer to negotiations and to the operational activities that would result from them. The period of the last six months of 1943 consequently was a mixture of old and emerging new organization.

POLICY SUMMARIES

WHILE THE two Divisions composing the research staff continued unchanged by the suspension of the subcommittees, the expected resumption of their meetings and the impending negotiations in several fields of postwar problems produced two lines of work.

The first of these lines affected all the staff and involved the preparation of analytical summaries bringing together the results of the deliberations during the past 16 months, in a type of document designed to obtain more specific or formal recommendations. These were called "policy summaries." The staff had begun to make such summaries late in February 1943 in the territorial field. It turned to them intensively after July 9 and, under the guidance of the Committee on Special Studies, developed them in all political fields and then in the economic fields. The general objective was to have a “handbook" for each field, arranged to present in a single series the policy summaries on the problems in that field. Thus, one series presented the security problems, another the territorial, others the economic and social, legal, regional, dependent area, and international organization problems. Each problem was the subject of a separate policy summary, or "H document," which incorporated views upon the problem and its possible alternative solutions as developed by committee discussions and research studies to date. The writing of the policy summaries proved to be the last stage of research before the actual drafting of final recommendations and of accompanying papers for presentation and use in negotiations. In fields where such a final stage had not been entered by the end of the preparation, these summaries represented the ultimate stage reached in policy study prior to absorption into operations.

The policy summaries on the economic problems of countries were organized to present separately the short-run and long-run aspects of problems on which the United States would probably be required to adopt a policy position or at least an attitude or point of view. In the case of Italy, for example, the following were involved: economic aspects of colonial problems, commercial policy, money and prices,

For illustrative document, see appendix 18.

reparations, investment, migration and related problems, communications, aviation, shipping, inland transport, power, cartels, raw materials, labor, international organization, and agriculture. On each of these, the views of the Advisory Committee or its subcommittees were given briefly, or if the committee discussion had not yet resulted in the formulation of views, proposals developed by the research staff were stated and the principal documents available to date cited. Finally, suggestions for further study and points of discussion were noted, and the studies in progress or planned were reported. While normally short, especially where territorial economic problems were concerned, the summaries on functional economic problems, such as reparations, were as long as four or five pages and in rare cases, such as trade and commercial policy, eleven pages.

Throughout the political fields, covering the strictly governmental, territorial, security, legal, and international organization problems, all policy summaries sharply defined the problem for decision. The summaries then stated why the problem arose, identified the principal considerations and the significance of the issues involved, including the views of other governments so far as known, and presented the preferred solution and the alternative courses open, with their advantages and disadvantages. The discussions of the Committee and subcommittees were analyzed, the completed studies and drafts and pertinent minutes of discussion listed, and the summaries concluded with a statement of further research needed. Some of the problems were so complex as to require breaking into parts, and such summaries ranged in length up to twenty or even twenty-five pages.

"H documents" in the territorial field frequently required mapssometimes three or more as in the case of the summary on the ItaloYugoslav frontier problem. In the case of a large number of problems in this field, the sections on alternative solutions had to report the views of both the Political and the Territorial Subcommittees, which were not always in complete accord. Up to this time, it will be recalled, the final fusion of views had not been attempted, and occasionally a more favorable attitude toward a given alternative was held by one subcommittee than by the other. Summaries on difficult political problems, such as those concerning the future status and organization of Germany and especially its unity or partition, had likewise to include the discussions of more than one subcommittee.

The policy summaries on security were by groups of problems concerning occupation, surrender, disarmament of enemy powers, prevention of rearmament of enemy powers, international security, obligation to enforce security, enforcement of security by military and by economic measures, and control and limitation of armaments transitionally and permanently. These followed the pattern of the politi

cal summaries.

The series on international organization was arranged rather differently. It included the same scope of information but went beyond this to develop the findings on the basis of the essential elements of a general international organization, giving the pertinent provisions of the Covenant of the League of Nations and of other international organizations and indicating the nature of past experience. Seven handbooks were written.

The first was on the executive body, and covered the questions of its desirability, form, powers, basis of representation, composition, selection, and voting. The second dealt with technical organizations and included a broad organization for considering international economic and social problems and coordinating the agreed action on such problems, as well as separate organizations for communications and transit, labor, investment and finance, trade, health, cultural relations, and social welfare. The policy summary analyzed in each of these cases the factors of desirability, method and timing of establishment, nature of structure and its relationship to a general international organization, and membership and representation. The third handbook dealt with steps toward a permanent international organization. The fourth analyzed the basic objectives of such organization, especially the maintenance of peace and security, prevention and settlement of disputes, promotion of economic and social welfare, and the safeguarding of human rights. The fifth was devoted to the deliberative body of a general international organization: the basis and nature of its powers, the distribution of powers between it and the executive body, and its composition, representation, and voting. The sixth, on the secretariat, set forth the problems of whether it should have an international or national character, the nature of the office of its secretary general, selection and tenure of its officials, and the centralization or decentralization of its headquarters. The final handbook was on "an international judiciary," although it also covered other problems in the legal field. It was comprised of six summaries devoted to the organs and structure of an international court, establishment and promotion of legal order in the world, separate handling of punishment for war crimes, property settlement after hostilities, the problem of guaranties of minority rights within states, and the development of an international bill of rights. These "seven volumes" were intensively used by the Informal Agenda Group in developing its recommendations concerning international organization.

A full draft constitution of a general international organization representing the views of a staff group in the Division of Political Studies was the remaining new documentation placed before the

'Later called specialized agencies in the case of such of these as became related to the general organization itself.

Agenda Group in the summer of 1943. The Agenda Group had already before it drafts of occasional articles written by several of its own individual members and the text that had been developed by the Special Subcommittee on International Organization. The staff draft bore the title, "The Charter of the United Nations," and was written between August 4 and 14, 1943, by a drafting group of ten staff officers: Messrs. Gerig, Chairman, Blaisdell, Kirk, Myers, Notter, Padelford, Preuss, Sandifer, Miss Fosdick, and Mrs. McDiarmid. This text, which was less than twelve pages in length, contained a number of provisions later incorporated in the proposals presented by the United States at Dumbarton Oaks the following year. The word "Charter" was first formally employed here in connection with the future general international organization, and the term "United Nations," coined by the President for the wartime coalition, was first used here as the name for the future permanent organization. A "Commentary" on each article of the "Charter" was completed September 7, 1943, written by the same staff members working individually or in small teams.

While this staff work, although more advanced, was accomplished in a manner. characteristic of previous work, certain developments were under way that were greatly to affect the staff organization for postwar and also current policy preparation. The concentration on a special field that marked the work on international organization described above also occurred in connection with the territorial and economic preparations. In this process, the over-all aspects of security, after suspension of the Security Subcommittee in July, were absorbed into the complex of problems relating to over-all international organization. The regional aspects of security from an organizational standpoint likewise entered into that complex of problems. Other aspects of security tended to be considered in terms of the postwar territorial problems of specific countries.

INTERDIVISIONAL COUNTRY AND AREA COMMITTEES

PLANS FOR Country committees were projected under direction from the Secretary in June 1943 before the suspension of the Advisory Committee in July. The urgency for joint consideration at the expert level by the postwar research staff and by the "desk officers" in the operating geographic and functional divisions had grown considerably since the invasion of North Africa, and the operating divisions had been increasingly represented in the meetings of the Territorial Subcommittee during the spring of 1943. As the action stage was being reached in some areas and approached in others by reason of the progress of the war, the need was to tie the consideration of

For text of this draft, see appendix 23.