Dumbarton Oaks among the senior American representatives on the Formulation Group, and put forward, but without official endorsement, in the Conversations at that time. Preference for the compromise formula was now expressed after the full analysis presented in the November 8 meeting, and papers on it were then drafted for the Acting Secretary.

A related question was the size of the majority vote required for Council decision. Since the uneven number of eleven members, of whom six were nonpermanent was projected, the provision incorporated in the compromise formula was for decision by seven votes. In matters other than procedural, the seven would have to include the votes of the permanent members excepting any required to abstain by reason of being party to the dispute or situation being voted on.

On November 15, these and additional papers on other open questions were discussed by the Acting Secretary, accompanied by Mr. Hackworth and Mr. Pasvolsky, with the President. The President approved the compromise formula as the position that should be taken by this Government. With this decision, the word "compromise" became inapplicable from the American standpoint, since henceforth this constituted our preferred formula for resolving the contending positions among the major powers on the question. Although anticipatory of intervening developments, it may be noted here that the formula thus approved on November 15, 1944, was the same formulawith a minor clarification of the intended reference at one point-presented and agreed upon without change at the Crimea Conference. This formula was eventually embodied in the Charter of the United Nations with only the necessary adjustment of citations to refer to the Charter instead of the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals and of "should" to "shall."

In the same conversation with the President, approval was received for the recommendation presented regarding invitations to the full United Nations conference and initial membership in the general international organization. Thereafter, our position was to favor inviting only signatories of the United Nations Declaration to the conference. It was decided to urge this view upon the six American republics that had so far not declared war and not signed that Declaration, and hence still had the status of Associated Nations. The question of location of the world organization was left to the future United Nations conference. On the fourth open question, the President took the position that the principle of international trusteeship should be firmly established and that the international organization should provide adequate machinery for this purpose. He directed that

'For text of memorandum approved by the President, see appendix 52. The related matter of "official languages" was not raised.

the Department of State proceed in consultation with the military and naval authorities to a further examination of tentative proposals on this subject. The two remaining open questions, concerning the Statute of the Court and the transfer of the functions of the League, were not raised. On the former, no decision was as yet required. On the latter, the question was one on which proposals from the United Kingdom and China were still being awaited.

With the Presidential approval of these policy recommendations on November 15, the urgent preparation in this field before the Crimea Conference was chiefly that required on the voting question and on the question of trusteeship. During the three weeks before negotiations on the voting formula were initiated early in December 1944, however, participation in the public discussion of the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals received much emphasis in the Department, and congressional and party consultations were resumed.

PUBLIC DISCUSSION

WITH THE CONCLUSION of the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations, the Department undertook to respond as fully as work permitted to the many requests being received from organizations of interested citizens, active in developing an informed public opinion, for officers to give addresses on the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals. In encouraging the fullest possible study of the Proposals, the Department allowed these officers for the first time to engage extensively in "off-the-record" discussions for the dual purposes of clarifying the new and difficult problems involved in the Proposals and of obtaining at the same time information concerning the views of the public on these problems.

Such discussions were arranged by interested public organizations, which, with the Department's cooperation, systematically provided for special meetings on the Proposals in practically all parts of the country. Members of the American Group from private life who had served at Dumbarton Oaks and several members from the War and Navy Departments took part in these discussions, in addition to the higher officers of the Department of State and the staff experts in this field. In the two weeks' period, December 5 to December 19, 1944, for example, five State Department groups took part in forty-five meetings on the Proposals in sixteen widely scattered cities. Frequent off-therecord meetings of leaders of these public organizations were held in the Department for the same purposes, and for the first time panel discussions were arranged for some of these meetings, in which a large proportion of the high officers of the Department participated. Meetings began on October 14, and by December 20 the Department had participated in some 115 such discussions.

These undertakings after the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations represented an important new part of the work of the Office of Public Affairs and of its Director, Mr. Dickey, and, after December 20, 1944, of Mr. MacLeish, the new Assistant Secretary in whom responsibility for this work was now vested. While this participation in the public consideration of national policy toward a general international organization for the maintenance of peace and security was most extensive in the winter months following the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations, it marked a new development in relationships of the Department of State and the public, which has since been maintained without essential change. Approximately one hundred public organizations, including churches, took part in these efforts to facilitate and encourage wide public discussion of this basic postwar foreign policy. Referring to their activities, Secretary Stettinius said on December 15, 1944:*

"I am particularly gratified by the understanding and vigor with which the proposals have been discussed and continue to be debated by our own people. Much of that discussion has been fostered by organized groups of citizens conscious of their responsibility to promote public understanding of the great national and international issues which confront us. Not only organizations specialized in the study of international relations, but business, labor, and farm groups, service clubs and associations of ex-servicemen, women's organizations and religious societies, professional associations and groups of educators are spreading an understanding of the Dumbarton Oaks proposals throughout the country. By their work these organizations are making one of the most important contributions that can be made at this time toward the establishment of a strong and workable international organization in which our country will have an active share commensurate with its position as a world power.

"These organized efforts to promote a clear understanding of the proposed international organization for the maintenance of peace promise well for the future. It is only through public discussion, knowledge, and understanding that the peace to come can rest upon firm foundations of popular support and participation-and thus be truly a people's peace."

The views of the public received through these channels, and in letters from individual citizens and from organized groups, were the subject of regular study and report to all superior officers of the Department of State concerned with the improvement of the Proposals and the final steps in the negotiation of the Charter. Such study was conducted by the Office of Public Affairs, where it has since continued, and by the Division of International Organization. This division at the time contained most of the Department's experts in this field, a part of whose time was currently devoted to the public discussions just described.

'Department of State Bulletin, XI, 741.

At the same time, the views of the governments of the other United Nations on the Proposals were being received through their diplomatic missions in Washington, occasionally from visiting foreign officials, and through United States diplomatic missions abroad. The reactions of European religious leaders were reported by Myron C. Taylor in communications to the White House, while the views of private individuals abroad were received through the reports of United States missions and in letters and press accounts. All these expressions of opinion were likewise studied, and during the winter of 1944-45 they increasingly provided the remaining preparation with explicit information on world opinion in connection with the future Charter.

CONGRESSIONAL AND PARTY CONSULTATIONS

BY THE time congressional consultations were resumed soon after the election in 1944, the mimeographed copies of the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals sent with letters to the participating Senators and Representatives on October 9, 1944, had been given considerable study, as was indicated in the comments that were being received by Secretary Hull or Acting Secretary Stettinius. John Foster Dulles, in a letter to the Secretary October 13, mentioned Governor Dewey's appreciation of the Proposals and said that he wanted to add his "own word of appreciation." He commented that while some of their "imperfections and inadequacies" might be dealt with before the Proposals became definitive, others might have to be dealt with after the organization was started. The main thing was to get started, and he felt that the Proposals brought this "within the realm of early possibility."

At Mr. Hull's suggestion, Mr. Stettinius on October 19 set up a committee to give continuing attention to the congressional and the party consultations for the purpose of avoiding partisanship in regard to the establishment of the general international organization. The committee was composed of Mr. Stettinius, Assistant Secretary Long, and Messrs. Hackworth, Dunn, and Savage. Since Mr. Dunn had recently been in touch on developments in this field with Hugh Wilson, who, in turn, was in contact with Mr. Dulles, the committee requested Mr. Dunn to continue this relationship. Steps were also taken by the committee to raise with staff members at the White House the desirability of assuring that the general undertaking to keep the problem of establishing the security organization "out of politics” would be fulfilled.

Consultation with Senators Connally, Barkley, George, Gillette, Vandenberg, Austin, White, and La Follette recommenced on November 24, 1944, in a long meeting held by Acting Secretary Stettinius,

and attended by Messrs. Hackworth, Pasvolsky, Wilson, Hiss, and Raynor. The open questions and "the prospective timetable" of next steps toward the drafting of the Charter were presented and discussed. The problem of handling disputes arising from treaties was considered at length. A searching examination was made especially of the voting question as it had been left unsettled at Dumbarton Oaks. The specific issue of a permanent member's voting in the Security Council on a dispute involving that member, and the voting formula being favored for resolving that issue were before the Senate Group for the first time. No collective judgment was sought, but general satisfaction with the proposed voting position was expressed by the meeting.

An equally long consultation took place with leaders of the House of Representatives on December 4, 1944. This meeting, covering much the same broad ground as that with the Senators, was attended by Speaker Rayburn, Minority Leader Martin, Representatives Bloom, Ramspeck, Arends, and Eaton, Secretary Stettinius, Under Secretary Grew, and Messrs. Hackworth, Dunn, Pasvolsky, Wilson, Hiss, and Raynor. Each of the open questions was considered, though at varying length. In particular, the voting issue, trusteeship, and the prob lem of authorization of use of force were analyzed."

Two days later, on the 6th, Secretary Stettinius met with Senators Burton, Hatch, Ball, and Hill to bring them up to date on developments since Mr. Hull had last talked with them. On December 8 he similarly consulted with Mr. Dulles.

NEGOTIATIONS ON THE VOTING FORMULA

CONCURRENTLY, NEGOTIATIONS with the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union on the compromise voting formula were being inaugurated. The negotiating papers on the voting formula had been drafted during the three weeks' period after Mr. Stettinius' conversation with the President on November 15, 1944. They had been prepared in the Department in the same manner as the recommendations on all the open questions considered in that conversation.

The initiating telegrams to open negotiations were sent directly by President Roosevelt, December 5 and 6, 1944, to Marshal Stalin, in the form of a message conveyed through Ambassador Harriman, who was asked to discuss the question with the Marshal, and to Prime Minister Churchill. Citing the continued delay in completing arrangements for an early meeting of the heads of the three governments and the conse

'This latter problem was finally resolved in the "United States Participation Act of 1945", approved Dec. 20, 1945, Public Law 264, 79th Cong., 1st sess., 59 Stat.