acrostic mashal, i.e. each verse commences with one of the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet, in the usual alphabetical order. Taking the manners and customs of his age and country as the basis of his pictures, the author delineates a woman of the highest attainments, strong-minded yet feminine, active, practical, prudent, economical. Her husband trusts her wholly; she manages the household, keeps her servants to their work, and herself sets an example of diligence; she always has funds in hand to make purchases at the right moment, and to provide for the needs of her household. She is as wise as she is beautiful, as generous and charitable as she is just; her virtue redounds to the credit of husband and children, and all connected with her.

"Her children rise up, and call her blessed;

Her husband also, and he praiseth her, saying,

Many daughters have done virtuously,

But thou excellest them all.

Favour is deceitful, and beauty is vain:

But a woman that feareth the Lord, she shall be praised.

Give her of the fruit of her hands;

And let her works praise her in the gates."

After the many passages which speak of the degradation of woman, which introduce her in the most odious light, as the temptress of youth, and the very road to death; in contrast, too, to numerous paragraphs and allusions which represent home-life as spoiled by a contentious, jealous, and extravagant wife,—it is soothing to come upon this noble description, and to close the volume with this picture of what a woman is when she is animated by love of God and duty.

We may add a slight sketch of the theology and ethics which meet us in this book. There is little distinctive Judaism. In this respect the similarity to the Book of Job is remarkable. The name of Israel is not once mentioned; there is no allusion to the Passover or the other great festivals; there is not a word about idolatry, not a warning against the worship of false gods; the observation of the sabbath is not referred to, nor the payment of tithes. At the same time, the Law is often mentioned, and the ceremonies enjoined therein are tacitly regarded as being in full use and practice (see ch. xxviii. 4, 9; xiv. 9; vii. 14, etc.). It is doubtless a providential arrangement that so little prominence is given to the external obligations of the Hebrew religion; by this reticence the book was better adapted to become a world-wide teacher; it spoke to Jew and Gentile alike; it taught a morality with which all good men could sympathize; it penetrated wherever Greek literature was understood and valued. Of its wide influence the Book of Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus are special proofs.

The dogmatic statements of "the Proverbs" are in complete accord with the religion of Israel as we know it from other sources. The special name of God in the form Jehovah occurs everywhere throughout the

book, and is used more often than Elohim, thus emphasizing the great truth of which the incommunicable name was the symbol. God is incomprehensible (ch. xxx. 4), infinitely wise (ch. iii. 19, etc.; viii.), omniscient, omnipresent (ch. xv. 3). He created all things out of nothing (ch. viii. 22, etc.); he governs and preserves them by his providence (ch. xvi. 4); he teaches men by chastening and affliction (ch. iii. 11, 12); his care watches over and rewards the good, while he punishes the evil (ch. xii. 2); the poor and the lowly are special objects of his love (ch. xxii. 4; xvi. 19; xxiii. 11); allowing to man the exercise of free-will (ch. i. 24), God helps him by his grace to make a right choice (ch. xvi. 1, 3, 9; xx. 24), because he loves him (ch. viii. 17, 31), and wills his happiness (ch. viii. 35). Of the doctrine concerning wisdom in this book we have spoken above. Of Messianic hopes no distinct trace is found. Whether the future life is asserted has often been questioned; but it is difficult to believe that this great truth is wholly neglected in this book, as we know that long before Solomon's time it was generally admitted, and we should confidently expect traces of its influence in the treatment of man's destiny.

"In the way of righteousness is life;

And in the pathway thereof there is no death" (ch. xii. 28).

"The wicked is thrust down in his evil-doing:

But the righteous hath hope in his death" (ch. xiv. 32).

These are not dogmatic assertions of future rewards and punishments, but they are consistent with such a belief, and may well imply it. In the same light we may consider the many passages which speak of the recompense that awaits actions good or evil. The retribution promised is not fully satisfied by anything that befalls a man in this life as the result of his conduct; both the reward and the punishment are spoken of in terms which seem to look to something beyond the grave-something which death did not end, and which nothing here was adequate to fulfil. If it is said that impurity plunges a man into the depths of hell (ch. ii. 18; vii. 11), that sinners remain in the congregation of the dead (ch. xxi. 16), and that their expectation perishes when they die (ch. xi. 7), it is also announced that righteousness delivereth from death (ch. xi. 4), that there is a sure reward for the godly (ch. xi. 18), and that the righteous hath hope in his death (ch. xiv. 32).

The moral teaching of our book may be grouped under various headsthe result of experience, the outcome of thought, controlled by the strongest sense of religion and an overruling Providence.

1. Duty to God. The first of all duties, the foundation of all morality and religion, is the fear of God (ch. i. 7). This must be followed by perfect trust in him and distrust of self (ch. iii. 5, etc.). The externals of religious worship are not to be neglected (ch. xiv. 9; xx. 25), but God looks chiefly to the heart (ch. xvii. 3); it is this which makes men acceptable or abominable in his sight (ch. xi. 20; xv. 8). If we sin, we must confess

our guilt (ch. xxviii. 13), meekly submit to his chastisement (ch. iii. 11, etc.).

2. Duty to ourselves. The first and chief lesson enforced is the utter necessity of avoiding fleshly lusts and evil companionship (ch. i. 10, etc.; xiii. 20). Among deadly sins to be avoided special mention is made of pride, the enemy of wisdom and hateful to God (ch. xvi. 5, 18, 19); avarice and cupidity, which lead to fraud and wrong (ch. xxviii. 20), and produce only a transitory profit (ch. xxiii. 4, 5); envy, which is as rottenness in the bones (ch. xiv. 30); luxury and intemperance, which, as prevalent in the more artificial state of society, induced by wealth and contact with other nations, are most strongly reprobated and shown to ensure most fatal consequences (ch. ii. 18; xxiii. 1, etc., 20, etc., 29, etc.); anger, which leads to folly, causes and embitters quarrels, makes a man detestable (ch. xiv. 17; xv. 1; xx. 3); idleness, which ruins equally a man's character and property (ch. xiii. 4; vi. 6, etc.). Then much is said about the necessity of guarding the tongue, in the power of which are death and life (ch. xii. 13, etc.; xviii. 21), and avoiding self-praise (ch. xii. 9; xxvii. 2).

3. Duty to our neighbours. We should sympathize with the afflicted, and try to cheer them (ch. xii. 25; xvi. 24); help the poor in their need because they are brethren, children of the All-Father (ch. iii. 27, etc.; xiv. 31). A neighbour should be judged honestly and truthfully (ch. xvii. 15; xxiv. 23, etc.); with him we are to live in peace (ch. iii. 29, etc.; xvii. 13, etc.), never slandering him (ch. x. 10, etc.; xi. 12, etc.), hiding his faults if possible (ch. x. 12), encouraging sincere friendship (ch. xviii. 24), and being strictly honest in all transactions with him (ch. xi. 1; xx. 14; xxii. 28).

4. Domestic duties. Pious parents are a blessing to children (ch. xx. 7), and should teach them holy lessons from their earliest years (ch. i. 8; iv. 1, etc.), training them in the right way (ch. xxii. 6), correcting them when they do wrong (ch. xxiii. 13, etc.). Children for their part should attend to the instruction of elders, and gladden their parents' hearts by prompt obedience and strict life (ch. x. 1; xxiii. 15, etc.). Let the mother of the family realize her high position, and be the crown of her husband (ch. xii. 4), and build up her house (ch. xiv. 1). If she needs a model, let her endeavour to emulate the strong-minded virtuous woman (ch. xxxi. 10, etc.). Be it far from her to imitate the contentious wife, whose peevish ill temper is like the continuous dropping of a leaky roof, and renders family life insupportable (ch. xix. 13; xxv. 24). Servants should be carefully selected (ch. xvii. 2) and wisely treated, that they may not rise beyond their station and prove arrogant and assuming (ch. xix. 10; xxix. 21).

5. Maxims relating to civil life and political economy. The king's throne is established by righteousness, mercy, and truth (ch. xvi. 12; xx. 28); his sentence is regarded as indefeasible (ch. xvi. 10); he pursues the godless with righteous punishment (ch. xx. 8, 26), protects the weak (ch. xxxi. 7, etc.), favours the pious and obedient (ch. xvi. 15; xix. 12). He

is no oppressor, nor covetous (ch. xxviii. 16); and he gathers round him faithful counsellors (ch. xiv. 35), whose advice he takes in all important matters (ch. xxiv. 6). By such means he increases the stability of his throne; he enables his subjects to advance in prosperity and virtue, and finds his honour in the multitude of his people (ch. xi. 14; xiv. 28). It is the duty of men to render obedience to the powers that be; punishment speedily overtakes the rebellious (ch. xvi. 14, etc.; xix. 12; xx. 2). God has ordained that there shall be rich and poor in the land (ch. xxii. 2); the rich ought to help the poor (ch. iii. 27, etc.; xiv. 21), and not treat them roughly (ch. xviii. 23). All commercial transactions should be conducted with the strictest honesty; the withholding of corn is specially denounced (ch. xi. 26). It is a foolish act to stand security for another's debt; you are sure to smart for it, and then you can blame only yourself (ch. vi. 1, etc.; xxii. 26, etc.).

Among miscellaneous sayings we may note the following :

"Who can say, I have made my heart clean,

I am pure from my sin?" (ch. xx. 9).

"It is as sport to a fool to do wickedness;

And so is wisdom to a man of understanding" (ch. x. 23).

"A wise man is strong;

Yea, a man of knowledge increaseth strength" (ch. xxiv. 5).

"The wicked flee when no man pursueth:

But the righteous are bold as a lion" (ch. xxviii. 1).

"Hope deferred maketh the heart sick:

But when the desire cometh, it is a tree of life" (ch. xiii. 12).

"The path of the righteous is as the shining light,

That shineth more and more unto the perfect day" (ch. iv. 18).

"The wicked earneth deceitful wages:

But he that soweth righteousness hath a sure reward" (ch. xi. 18). "The hoary head is a crown of glory;

It shall be found in the way of righteousness" (ch. xvi. 31).

§ 3. AUTHORSHIP AND DATE.

Uncritical antiquity, followed in modern times by undiscriminating conservatism, had no hesitation in ascribing the whole Book of Proverbs to one author, Solomon, King of Israel. It is true that three portions of the work are prefaced with his name (ch. i. 1; x. 1; xxv. 1); but two other sections are attributed respectively to Agur (ch. xxx. 1) and Lemuel (ch. xxxi. 1); so that apparently the volume itself professes to be composed. by three authors; and besides this, there are two appendices containing "the words of the wise" (ch. xxii. 17, etc.; xxiv. 23, etc.), which must be distinguished from those of Solomon. It was natural indeed for the Jews to affix their great king's name to the whole collection. He is said to have

spoken three thousand proverbs (mashal, 1 Kings iv. 32), a statement which implies that they had been collected into a volume, and the present work was reasonably supposed to form part of this surprisingly large storehouse of wisdom. But a more careful examination of the book necessitates the opinion of divided authorship; contents and language point to differences of date and composition; the repetition of the same proverb in identical or almost identical language, the recurrence of the same thought varied only in actual wording, the adoption of one member of an old maxim with the attachment of a different hemistich,-these blemishes could hardly have been allowed to remain in the work of a single author. There are also variations in the language, which in a marked manner differentiate the several parts, so that we are forced to allow a composite character to the work; and the difficult task is imposed of endeavouring to find some certainty on the question of its origin.

In one place alone does the book itself afford direct help towards determining the date of any portion. The section copied by Hezekiah's friends from previous records must have been put together in that monarch's reign, between two and three hundred years after the time of Solomon, who was regarded as the author of those sayings. The persons engaged in the compilation may have been those mentioned in 2 Kings xviii. 18—Shebna the secretary, and Joah, son of Asaph, the chronicler, and very possibly the Prophet Isaiah himself, as a Jewish tradition relates. Whether after so long an interval they simply reproduced his utterances, unadulterated and unaugmented, might prima facie be doubted; a careful examination of the section shows that this doubt is well founded. If there are many sentences therein which in form and substance have a flavour of high antiquity, and may well have flowed from Solomon's lips and have been current in his age, there are also many which exhibit the artificiality of a later period, and presuppose a condition of things far removed from the palmy era of the Hebrew monarchy. Most critics have come to the conclusion that the earliest portion is that which is called the first great collection, contained in ch. xi.-xxii. 16. The style throughout is simple and chaste, the maxims are mostly comprised in antithetical distichs, each verse being complete in itself. This, according to Ewald, is the oldest form of the technical proverb. It is noticed that there are many phrases and expressions which are peculiar to this section, e.g. "fountain of life," "tree of life," snares of death," "hand in hand," "whisperer, tale-bearer," "shall not go unpunished,” "but for a moment," etc. But arguments derived from peculiarities of structure and language are generally uncertain, and strike readers in different ways. A surer criterion is found in the contents of a composition, in the references which it contains, in the circumstances which it mentions, or the environments which it implies. Now, if we compare this first collection with that of Hezekiah's "men," we shall note some very marked differences, which have been observed by many critics. There is evidently a change in the political situation. In the former section the monarchy is

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