in sentiment. His action and pronunciation are said to have been uncommonly vehement and ardent; which, from the manner of his writing, we should readily believe. His character appears to have been of the austere rather than of the gentle kind. He is always grave, serious, passionate; never degrading himself, or attempting any thing like pleasantry. If his admirable eloquence be in any respect faulty, it is, that it sometimes borders on the hard and dry. He may be thought to want smoothness and grace, which is attributed to his imitating too closely the manner of Thucydides, who was his great model for style, and whose history he is said to have transcribed eight times with his own hands. But these defects are more than atoned for by that masterly force of masculine eloquence, which, as it overpowered all who heard it, cannot, even in the present day, be read without emotion. Cicero calls him a perfect model, and such as he himself wished to be. These two great princes of eloquence have been often compared together; but the judgment hesitates to which to give the preference. The archbishop of Cambray, however, seems to have stated their merits with great justice and perspicuity in his Reflections on Rhetoric and Poetry. "I do not hesitate," says he, "to declare, that I think Demosthenes superior to Cicero. I am persuaded that no one can admire Cicero more than I do. He adorns whatever he attempts; he does honour to language; he disposes of words in a manner peculiar to himself; his style has great variety of character. Whenever he pleases, he is even concise and vehement; for instance, against Catiline, against Verres, against Antony. But ornament is too visible in his writings. His art is wonderful; but it is perceived. When the orator is providing for the safety of the republic he forgets not himself, nor permits others to forget him. Demosthenes seems to escape from himself, and to see nothing but his country. He seeks not elegance of expression; unsought for he possesses it. He is superior to admiration; he makes use of language as a modest man does of dress, only to cover him. He thunders, he lightens; he is a torrent which carries every thing before it. We cannot criticise, because we are not ourselves. His subject enchains our attention, and makes us forget his language; we lose him from our sight; Philip alone occupies our minds. I am delighted with both those orators; but I confess that I am less affected by the infinite art and magnificent eloquence of Cicero, than by the rapid simplicity of Demosthenes."

Of sixty-five orations which he composed, only a small portion remains. The best editions are those of Wolfius, Frankfort, folio, 1604; Taylor, Cambridge, 4to., 1748; and Reiske, Leipsic, 8vo. 1770. The best translations are those of Leland and Francis.

LYCURGUS, an Athenian orator, son of Lycophron, flou

rished in the time of Philip of Macedon, and is supposed to have died about the year B. C. 320. He studied philosophy under Plato, and oratory under Isocrates, and, attaching himself to a political life, arose to eminence in the state. The superintendance of the public revenue was entrusted to him, in which office he conducted himself with the strictest integrity. He was appointed one of the magistrates; and in exercising the duties of this situation, he banished all persons of a dissolute character, and made a number of very useful regulations. As he thought the highest kinds of poetry possessed superior advantages, he patronized dramatic exhibitions, and caused statues to be erected in honour of the poetical tragedians. He was the friend of Demosthenes, and a zealous advocate for liberty. When Xenocrates was dragged to prison because he had not paid the tribute exacted from strangers, he liberated him, and confined the tax-gatherer in his stead. Lycurgus was one of the thirty orators whom the Athenians refused to deliver up to Alexander. Some of his orations are preserved, and have been printed in collections of the Greek orators. One oration of his, against Isocrates, is extant.

ÆSCHINES, an Athenian orator, who flourished about B. C. 342, and distinguished himself by his rivalship with Demosthenes. His father's name was Ahemetus, and he boasted of his descent from a noble family; though Demosthenes reproached him as being the son of a courtezan. The first open signs of enmity between the rival orators appeared at the court of Philip, where they were sent as ambassadors; but the character of Eschines was tarnished by the acceptance of a bribe from the Macedonian prince, whose tyranny had hitherto been the general subject of his declamation. When the Athenians wished to reward the patriotic labours of Demosthenes with a golden crown, Eschines impeached Ctesiphon, who proposed it; and to their subsequent dispute are we indebted for the two celebrated orations De Corond. Eschines was defeated by his rival's superior eloquence, and banished to Rhodes; but as he retired from Athens, Demosthenes ran after him, and nobly forced him to accept a present of silver. In his banishment, the orator repeated to the Rhodians what he had delivered against Demosthenes; and after receiving much applause, he was desired to read the answer of his antagonist. It was received with greater marks of approbation; "But," exclaimed Æschines, "how much more would your admiration have been raised had you heard Demosthenes himself speak it!"

Æschines died in the seventy-fifth year of his age, at Rhodes, or, as some suppose, at Samos. He wrote three orations and nine epistles, which, from their numbers, received the name, the first of the Graces, and the last of the Muses.

The orations were printed by Aldus in 1513; by Henry Ste

phens, with the Greek orators, in 1575; and since, by Reiske. There are also ascribed to Eschines twelve epistles, which Taylor has added to his edition of Demosthenes. They have been printed separately at Leipsic, in 8vo., 1772, and by Wolfius, with a Latin version, which is much esteemed. A French translation of the orations was given by Auger, at Paris, in 1789. An oration which bears the name of Deliaca Lex, is said not to be his production, but that of another Æschines, also an orator of that age. Diogenes mentions seven more of that name.

PYTHEAS, an Athenian rhetorician, in the age of Demosthenes, who distinguished himself by his intrigues and opposition to the measures of Demosthenes, of whom he observed, that his orations smelt of the lamp. Pytheas joined Antipater after the death of Alexander the Great. His orations were devoid of elegance, harsh, unconnected, and diffuse, and from this circumstance he has not been ranked among the orators of Athens.

DEMADES, a famous Athenian, who, from being a mariner, became a great orator, and appeased Philip by his eloquence, after the famous victory over the Athenians at Charonea, B. C. 338.

ANEAS TACITUS ÆNEAS, a Greek author in the art of war, who lived about B. C. 336. His work was prefixed, by Casaubon, to his edition of Polybius, Paris, 1609, and reprinted, in 12mo., at Leyden, in 1633.

THEOPOMPUS, a celebrated Greek orator and historian, was born in the isle of Chios, and flourished in the reign of Alexander the Great. He was one of the most famous of all the disciples of Isocrates, and won the prize from all the panegyrists whom Artemisia invited to praise Mausolis. He wrote several works, which are lost.

ANAXIPPUS, a comic writer, in the age of Demetrius. He used to say, that philosophers were wise only in their speeches, but fools in their actions.

HYPERIDES, an eminent Grecian orator, the son of Glaucippus, was born at Athens, and studied under Plato and Isocrates. He cultivated the art of eloquence, became one of the most distinguished orators of his time, and acquired that sway in state affairs which popular oratorical talents never failed to obtain in the ancient democracies. He was the steady and zealous opponent of Philip of Macedon, and his zeal caused him to be made commander of a galley, in which capacity he gained much credit by his promptness and zeal in succouring the Byzantians. When Philip threatened an invasion of Euboea, Hyperides procured a tax to be levied for the equipment of forty galleys, and set the example, by contributing one for himself and another for his son. In the time of Alexander he was pos

sessed of the chief influence in Athens, and when that prince demanded galleys and officers from the Athenians, he opposed the grant of either. His life was fully devoted to his country. He moved distinguished honours to Demosthenes, his great competitor in eloquence; but when this prince of orators was suspected of having taken a bribe from Harpalus, he was appointed to conduct the prosecution against him. Hyperides was himself accused of having acted contrary to the law, by procuring a decree for granting citizenship to foreigners, and liberty to the slaves, whose families he caused to be transported to the Piræus; but he justified himself on the ground of state necessity. Hyperides continued his opposition to the Macedonian power after the death of Alexander; and when Antipater sent deputies to Athens, who made a high eulogy upon their master, as the worthiest of men; "I know," replied Hyperides, "that he is a very worthy man; but we will have no master, however worthy he may be." The approach of Antipater obliged Hyperides and the other leading characters to quit Athens. Departing thence, he was seeking for a safer place of refuge, when he was apprehended by Archias, in the temple where he had taken sanctuary, and carried to Antipater, at Cleone. He was put to the torture, with the hope of obtaining from him some state secrets. To prevent this, he is said to have bit off part of his tongue; but another account relates that his tongue was cut out by order of the tyrant, as a punishment due to his silence. His body was left unburied till some of his relations secretly committed it to the funeral pile, and brought his ashes to Athens. Quintilian characterises the oratory of Hyperides as singularly sweet and acute, better adapted to little than to great causes. In the time of Photius fifty-two of his

orations were extant.

CALLISTRATUS, an excellent Athenian orator, who was banished for having obtained too great an authority in the government. Demosthenes was so struck with the force of his eloquence, and the glory that it procured him, that he abandoned philosophy, and resolved from thenceforward to apply himself to oratory.

DINARCHUS, a Greek orator, son of Sostratus, and disciple to Theophrastus, at Athens. He acquired much money by his compositions, and suffered himself to be bribed by the enemies of the Athenians, B. C. 307. Of sixty-four of his orations, only three remain, which are in Stephens's Collection, 1575.

ANAXIMENES, the son of Aristocles of Lampsacus, an orator, the disciple of Diogenes, the cynic. He was preceptor to Alexander of Macedon, and followed him to the wars. Alexander being incensed against the people of Lampsacus, they sent this philosopher to intercede for them. Alexander, knowing the cause of his coming, swore that he would do the very

reverse of whatever he desired of him. Anaximenes begged of him to burn Lampsacus and extirpate the inhabitants, or sell them for slaves. Alexander, unwilling to break his oath, and not able to elude this stratagem, pardoned the people of Lampsacus.

JADDUS, high-priest of the Jews, who, when Alexander intended to pillage Jerusalem and the temple, went to meet him in his pontifical habit, and the sight so struck the victor, that he altered his sentiments, and offered sacrifices to the God of Israel.

SIMON I., sirnamed the Just, high-priest of the Jews, succeeded his father, Onias I., in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He is celebrated for his justice, and for having repaired the temple of Jerusalem, which had fallen to decay, and surrounding the city with a wall.

ELEAZAR, high-priest of the Jews, succeeded his brother, Simon the Just, about B. C. 292. He is said to have given a copy of the Hebrew Scriptures to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who caused the same to be translated into Greek by seventy interpreters, which version is now known by the name of the Septuagint.

ARISTEUS, said to be one of the seventy-two translators of the Hebrew Scriptures, at the court of Philadelphus, according to Josephus. A letter, attributed to him, on the subject of that version, is extant, and was printed at Oxford, in 1692.

ANTIGONUS SOCHÆUS, the founder of the Jewish sect of the Sadducees, about B. C. 300. He opposed the Pharisees on the merit of good works, and some of his followers taught that there is no future state of rewards or punishments, resurrection for the dead, or future life.

HISTORY.

EPHORUS, a Greek historian and orator, was a native of Cuma, or Cyme, in Æolia, and flourished about the year B. C. 352. He was a disciple of Socrates, at whose instigation he wrote history, which he commenced after the fabulous periods, with the return of the Heraclidæ into Peloponnesus, and brought down to the twentieth year of Philip of Macedon. This work, which was divided into thirty books, was held in estimation by the ancients, and frequently cited by Strabo and other writers; though the historian is charged with errors, misrepresentations, and plagiarisms. Besides the history, the loss of which is regretted, Ephorus wrote several other books on moral, geographical, and rhetorical subjects, none of which are extant except a few fragments, printed at Leyden, in 1697, 4to. XANTHUS, a historian of Sardis, under Darius.

ÆSOP, the author of a romantic history of Alexander the