The International Court consists of 15 judges, nationals of different states, possessing qualifications for appointment to the highest judicial offices in their respective countries or having recognized competence in international law, and they are elected by the General Assembly and by the Security Council of the United Nations, each acting independently, by absolute majority. The present judges of the court are:

PURPOSES, POWERS, AND FUNCTIONS

The Charter of the United Nations is both a declaration of the purposes and the principles of the organization and a constitution providing for machinery by which these objectives may be achieved. The Charter commits its members to the maintenance of international peace and security, to the development of "friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and selfdetermination of peoples," and to international cooperation in solving "international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion." The organization itself is to serve as "a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends."

The organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of the member states which agree to fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them under the Charter. Members are committed to the settlement of their disputes by peaceful means and are obligated to "refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations." Further, the Charter binds those of its members "which have or assume responsibilities for the administration of territories

whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-government" to "recognize the principle that the interests of the inhabitants of these territories are paramount" and to "accept as a sacred trust the obligation to promote to the utmost" their well-being.

The International Court of Justice has jurisdiction over all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters provided for in the Charter or by treaties in force. The primary function of the Court "is to decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it," but it may also decide cases ex aequo et bono if the parties agree. Under article 36 of the Statute, states may recognize the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory by making a declaration to that effect.

The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question when requested to do so by the General Assembly or the Security Council of the United Nations, and, within the scope of their activities, by its other organs and specialized agencies when so authorized by the General Assembly. The Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and the Interim Committee of the General Assembly have been so authorized by the General Assembly, as well as certain specialized agencies.

STRUCTURE

For the accomplishment of the purposes of the organization, the Charter provides for six principal organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.

The General Assembly. In a sense, the General Assembly is the constituent body of the organization because it elects the nonpermanent members of the Security Council, the members of the Economic and Social Council, and the members of the Trusteeship Council; upon the recommendation of the Security Council, it appoints the Secretary-General of the organization, and, independently with the Security Council, elects the members of the International Court of Justice. In addition, the Assembly receives for consideration reports from the other organs of the United Nations. Moreover, the Assembly is charged with the consideration and adoption of the budget of the organization, as well as the apportionment of its expenses to the members.

All members of the United Nations are represented in the General Assembly. No member may have more than five representatives. Each member has one vote. Article 18 of the Charter provides that decisions of the General Assembly on important questions shall be made by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. The important questions enumerated are recommendations with re

spect to the maintenance of international peace and security; the elections of the nonpermanent members of the Security Council, of the Economic and Social Council, and of the Trusteeship Council; the admission of new members; the suspension of the rights and privileges of the members; questions relating to the operation of the trusteeship system; and budgetary questions. Decisions on other questions, including the determination of additional categories of questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority, are made by a majority of the members present and voting.

The General Assembly meets in regular annual session the third Tuesday in September and in such special sessions as may be required. Special sessions may be convoked by the Secretary-General at the request of the Security Council or of a majority of the members of the United Nations. The General Assembly elects its own officers for each

session.

The General Assembly may discuss any questions within the scope of the Charter, except disputes actually being dealt with by the Security Council; it may consider the general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments; it may initiate studies for the promotion of international cooperation in the political, economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields, the encouragement of the progressive development of international law and its codification, and the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all peoples. It receives recommendations from the Economic and Social Council in economic and social matters, and it is assisted by the Trusteeship Council in executing its responsibilities in the fields of international trusteeship and non-self-governing territories.

The Assembly established as a subsidiary body on November 13, 1947, the Interim Committee, on which all members may be represented and which meets when the Assembly is not in session, to assist it in the execution of its responsibilities in relation to matters concerning the maintenance of international peace and security, the promotion of international cooperation in the political fields, and the peaceful adjustment of any situation likely to impair the general welfare or friendly relations among nations.

To give effect to those provisions of the Charter giving the Assembly responsibility for studies and recommendations to encourage progressive development of international law and its codification, the Assembly has set up an International Law Commission composed of 15 members, who must be persons of recognized competence in international law, to study methods of achieving these ends.

The Security Council. The Charter confers upon the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace

and security. The Council undertakes the peaceful settlement of disputes or situations placed before it, and, if it deems that a threat to the peace or act of aggression exists, it seeks to enforce international peace and security.

The Council consists of five permanent members-China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom, and the United States-and six nonpermanent members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. A retiring member is not eligible for immediate re-election. Each member has one representative and one vote.

Decisions on procedural matters are made by an affirmative vote of seven members. Decisions on all other matters are made by an affirmative vote of seven members, including the concurring votes of the permanent members, provided that, in decisions under chapter VI, Pacific Settlement of Disputes, and under paragraph 3 of article 52, a party to a dispute must abstain from voting. The practice has developed under which the abstention of a permanent member from a vote is not considered to be a veto. The Security Council is organized so as to be able to function continuously.

In its work the Security Council may be assisted by the Military Staff Committee, provided for by article 47 of the Charter which consists of the chiefs of staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives, and is charged with responsibility for advice and assistance to the Security Council on all questions relating to the Council's "military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament," and "for the strategic direction of any armed forces placed at the disposal of the Security Council." The Atomic Energy Commission, which was established by action of the General Assembly January 24, 1946, also functions under the general supervision of the Security Council. It is composed of the members of the Security Council and Canada (when it is not a member of the Council). The Commission has been engaged in the study and development of an international system for the control of atomic energy to the extent necessary to insure its use only for peaceful purposes. On February 13, 1947, the Security Council established the Commission on Conventional Armaments, composed of representatives of the states on the Security Council, and assigned it the task of formulating plans for the regulation and reduction of conventional armaments and armed forces.

The Economic and Social Council. The Economic and Social Council consists of 18 members of the United Nations elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. Members are eligible for immediate

re-election. Each member has one representative and one vote. The Economic and Social Council meets in two regular sessions each year under its own rules of procedure.

The Charter assigns to the Economic and Social Council wide responsibilities for economic, social, cultural, educational, health, human rights, and related matters. The Council itself cannot alone carry out the vast range of activities constituting the network of economic and social cooperation under the United Nations. It works through nine functional Commissions with their five subcommissions, and three regional Commissions which report to the Council and whose general work programs are coordinated by it and subject to its final approval. These are the Economic and Employment Commission, with its subcommissions on Employment and Economic Stability and Economic Development; the Transport and Communications Commission; the Statistical Commission, with a subcommission on Statistical Sampling; the Commission on Human Rights with its subcommissions on Freedom of Information and of the Press, and Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities; the Social Commission; the Commission on the Status of Women; the Commission on Narcotic Drugs; the Fiscal Commission; and the Population Commission. Finally, there are three regional economic Commissions: the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), and the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA). The creation of an Economic Commission for the Middle East (ECME) is under consideration.

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In addition, there is a planetary system of autonomous organizations, the specialized agencies, which function in the economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields. Each specialized agency has its own sphere of responsibility, defined in its own independent constitution. The Council, however, is responsible for coordinating the activities of these organizations. There are at present 10 specialized agencies: the International Labor Organization (ILO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the International Monetary Fund (Fund), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (Bank), the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Refugee Organization (IRO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and the Universal Postal Union (UPU). Special agreements negotiated between the United Nations and these agencies, under article 63 of the Charter, bring them into direct relationship with the United Nations. An agreement has been con

'Each of these is discussed fully in the appropriate section of this handbook.