of the Crusades, was sent, but without any | Los Martyres de Argel (or The Martyrs important results, under Admiral Mansel of Algiers'). The French, too, and Itaagainst Algiers. In 1655 Blake was more lians took the plots of a large number of successful; all the English captives were their stories at that period from the same set at liberty, and Cromwell opened Par- source. The Sallee Rover' of Robinson liament in the following year with the an- Crusoe is, in fact, only a specimen of a nouncement that peace had been concluded widely-spread characteristic of contempowith the profane' nations. Other expe- rary European literature. Nor, indeed, ditions, however, were necessary, and four can we limit ourselves to Europe. The or five treaties were made between the story of The Algerine Captive was one Restoration and the Revolution. Nor was of the earliest literary works of the United England the only nation involved in this States reprinted in London. America, as inveterate conflict. Algiers was twice well as Europe, was afflicted by the Barbombarded by the French in the reign of bary pirate both before and after the DeLouis XIV., and with so much success, claration of Independence. In 1793 there that Voltaire says of his countrymen that were 115 American slaves in Algiers; and they now began to be respected on that Franklin, on his death-bed, gave his last African coast, where previously they had word for emancipation by making a parody been known only as slaves. As to the re- of a speech delivered in the American Conlations between Barbary and Spain, they gress, transferring the scene to Algiers; were characterised by the same hostility and putting the speech in the mouth of a corand by incessant mutual reprisals. Here sair slave-dealer in the Divan at that place.' the names of two illustrious men, the one a Frenchman, the other a Spaniard-two of the greatest names of the seventeenth century-demand our particular notice. They represent the two currents of feeling which kept the sympathy and indignation of Europe in reference to Algerine slavery perpetually fresh. Religion and charity in St. Vincent de Paul and the institutions which he founded-poetry and literature in Cervantes and the writers who followed him-were agencies quite as powerful as treaties or bombardments. St Vincent, when a young deacon, was taken by Barbary pirates within sight of the French coast, while he was going from Marseilles towards Narbonne, on his way to revisit the home of his childhood. The sufferings which he witnessed made an indelible impression, and he became the founder of those Sisterhoods of Mercy, which have been a true honour to the modern Church of Rome. Thus the horrors of slavery gave the impulse to organised efforts for the alleviation of sorrow; and so we hope that the miseries of our recent war will be remembered hereafter as the fruitful begin ning of wider opportunities for woman's mission in scenes of sickness and pain. Cervantes, after his own captivity, laboured in another field on behalf of the Christian slave. The scenes in his dramas, El Trato de Argel (or Life in Algiers') and Los Banos de Argel (or The Galleys of Algiers') were, as he says himself, not drawn from the imagination, but born far from the regions of fiction, in the very heart of truth.' He was followed by Lope de Vega in Los Cautivos de Argel (or The Captives of Algiers'), and by Haedo in

Even Algerine slavery had its alleviations. The Koran enjoins kindness to the captive; the Christian bondmen in Algiers were frequently raised to places of honour and trust, or encouraged by the prospect of earning their redemption; above all, Christian ecclesiastics were allowed to preach and to administer the sacraments among them. Campbell tells us of an Algerine Turk who bequeathed a legacy for the distribution of alms among the most necessitous of the infidel dogs;' and in Arago's curious autobiography, which contains a representation of Algiers as it was at the beginning of this century, we have a pleasing picture of an old Lazarist priest, who in a residence of half a century had so won the respect and affections of all the Mussulmans that he was able to shelter his fellow-Christians from insult and violence. Nevertheless, slavery is still slavery. Thanks be to God,' says the captive in Don Quixote, for the great mercies bestowed upon me; for, in my opinion, there is no happiness on earth equal to that of liberty regained.' Putting aside the horrors of a perpetual exile, cut off from relations, friends, and countrymen, the kindness bore a slight proportion to the sufferings. Whatever might be true of domestic servitude, the condition of those who were engaged in the day on public works, and shut up at night in the bagnios, was perfectly frightful. Pananti, whose narrative is one of the latest, says, Of all human sufferers, I have been taught to believe the Christian slaves of Barbary are the greatest.' It is no wonder that the indignation of Europe, irritated still further by the insolent treatment of consuls and free Chris

6

describes as a very mild and good-tempered old officer, about sixty-five years of age, rather thin, and of the middle size.' Meanwhile the Dey of Algiers had heard something of the expedition through the French newspapers, not by reading them himself, for he was unable to read or write even his own language; but by the informa tion of a European consul who spoke Turkish. The news of the coming of the English was confirmed by the captain of a Danish merchant-ship, which happened to touch at Algiers about that time.

tian residents, gradually ripened, and that | Admiral Van Cappellan, whom Salamé the general feeling at length reached its crisis in the English expedition of 1816. Though Tangier is not within the limits of the French colony, we can hardly in passing avoid mentioning a possession which, as part of the dowry of the queen of Charles II., is connected with the history of England. A tribute of respect is due to Lord Dartmouth, who, when commissioned in 1683 to go and destroy the fortifications and the harbour of the expensive and useless African settlement, invited Ken to accompany the expedition, thinking it of the highest importance to have the ablest and best man he could possibly obtain to go with him, both for the service of God, and the good government of the clergy that are chaplains to the fleet.' Such was the language of the invitation; and great is the sacrifice of feeling which the author of the Morning and Evening Hymns must have made in yielding to the call. Tangier seems to have been a sink of iniquity. In the Diary of Mr. Pepys, after an amusing account of the incidents of the voyage, especially the hot disputes, on deck and in the cabin, about spirits, Dr. Ken asserting there were such, and Pepys with the rest denying it,'-we find the following:

Sunday, Sept. 30-To church (in Tangier). A very fine and seasonable, but most unsuccessful, argument from Dr. Ken, particularly in reproof of the vices of this town.' And again, 'Had a great deal of good discourse on the viciousness of this place, and its being high time for Almighty God to destroy it.... Very high discourse between Dr. Ken and me on one side, and the governor (Kirke) on the other, about the excessive liberty of swearing we observe

here.'

'The Dey replied, "Let them come." The Danish captain said, "Very likely they will in reply said, "When they send me their shells come with a great quantity of shells." The Dey I shall hang them in my rooms like these mélons" (alluding to the water-melons which are preserved in Algiers by being hung from the roofs). Then the Dane told him, "Now you say so because you do not know what the English shells are, but I was at Copenhagen when they

came there, and I know what their shells

answer

On the 27th of August the fleet lay off Algiers, and Salamé with the flag-lieutenant was sent with a letter containing the admiral's demands for the immediate aboli tion of Christian slavery, and reparation of the wrongs inflicted on the European powers. As the interpreter left the Queen Charlotte, the officers called out to him, Salamé, if you return with an from the Dey that he accepts our demands without fighting, we will kill you instead.' He was much delighted' with this bravery and determination of the English nation, but his alarm was considerable during two hours, while he waited in the boat near the mole for the Dey's answer, within pistolshot of thousands of those barbarous people, and hearing their impertinences.' But he consoled himself with reflecting that 'no one in this world can obtain the end of his wishes without exposing himself to perils.' The time expired, and no answer was returned. Then the admiral led the way, followed in succession by the rest of the squadron. Each ship anchored by the stern, the Queen Charlotte abreast of the The last great passage of Algerine his- mole-head, within one hundred yards' distory previous to the French occupation is tance. The Algerine gun-boats, with their the expedition of 1816. Lord Exmouth's red silk flags, lay crowded close under the interpreter Salamé narrates with a charm- batteries. Thousands of Turks and Moors ing oriental naïveté his experiences and looked on in astonishment; and during feelings during this bombardment by the this movement of the English fleet, not a English and Dutch. The twenty-five ships gun was fired from the city. Indeed, it apwith which Lord Exmouth sailed from Ply-peared afterwards that the guns were not mouth had been joined at Gibraltar by five loaded. Lord Exmouth's bravery is thus gun-boats, and by six Dutch ships under described by Salamé, who honestly tells us

The works of the African colony were blown up and abandoned; Ken returned to his English home; and while the Asiatic colony of Bombay, the other part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza, grew daily into greater importance, Tangier disappeared from our national history, except, indeed, that the battalions which bore its name fought under King William at the Boyne, as the Zouaves of Algiers fought at the Alma.

The

can armada. M. Duval, the consul, had | interests of Algiers into the shade. been struck on the face by the Dey with a government of July were embarrassed by fan. The ship Provence also had been the legacy of the Absolutists. The national fired upon. Polignac was irritated. Per- feeling, however, compelled them to accept haps he thought that a coup d'état might it; and the first success of the African enmore easily be accomplished under the terprise was promptly seconded. Marshal shelter of a military success.* He resolv- Bourmont, whose going over to the Allies ed not simply to bombard Algiers, as it had on the eve of the battle of Waterloo was been bombarded under Louis XIV. and probably not forgotten, was succeeded by by Lord Exmouth, but to conquer it. In Marshal Clausel, another old soldier of the some minds the thought of renewing the Empire, whose gallant bearing at Salamanprestige of Bonaparte and Egypt was very ca after Marmont's disaster is well known active. Others felt with some pride that to all students of the battles of the PeninFrance was taking up the cause of civiliza- sula. Bourmont had advanced into the intion, of Europe, of Christianity. More terior only so far as to make a reconnaispractical spirits thought of colonisation and sance to Blidah. Clausel laid Blidah waste, rivalry with England. In the midst of this massacred its inhabitants, penetrated into excitement of politics and romance, the the Atlas through the Col de Mouzüia, and great expedition, consisting of 11 line-of- established a new bey at Medéah, the cabattle ships, 19 frigates, and 274 transports, pital of the Turkish province of Tittery. under the superintendence of Admiral Du- This was the first military expedition of perré, sailed at the end of May from Toulon. the Zouaves,* who were a creation of MarOn the 13th of June they arrived in front of shal Clausel, and who in their original orAlgiers. On the 14th a landing was effect-ganisation consisted partly of indigenous ed at Sidi-Ferruch, a few miles to the west. The three divisions of Berthezène, Loverdo, and the Duc d'Escar contained 37,000 men, the whole being under the command of Marshal Bourmont. Ten days of hard fighting brought them to the height which rises over the town and commands a view of the Metidja plain It was found (as Tacitus says in his account of the affair of Tacfarinas) that African cavalry are no match for disciplined European infantry. During the night of the 29th the first parallel was begun at a distance of 250 metres from the Château de l'Empereur, so called because it was built where the German Emperor had been encamped before his disastrous retreat. The fire opened at daybreak on the 4th of July. The bom bardment was short. At half-past nine the Turks were in despair. At ten they blew the castle with a terrible explosion, and the French monarch was king of Algiers. At the end of the month he had ceased to be king of Paris.

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If we pursue the history of Algeria during the few years which succeeded the French occupation of the city, we find it characterized by energetic military advances, which, however, were seriously hindered by hesitating counsels and a fluctuating policy at home. The revolution in Paris and the siege of Antwerp threw the

*On avait pensé qu'un coup d'état passerait plus facilement à l'ombre d'un succès militaire. Les Français, disait-on, oublient facilement la liberté en présence de la gloire.-Lacretelle, Histoire de France depuis la Restauration, iv. p. 419.

Arab soldiers and partly of enfans de Paris and other reckless Europeans. And certainly no more curious meeting-point of the East and West can be pointed out than that which is presented by this scene, when the swarthy children of Africa, wearing the turban and shouting the Bedouin war-cry, and the Volontaires de la Charte, singing La Marseillaise, and still wearing their blouses, pressed on side by side through the gorges of Mount Atlas under the command of a Peninsular general. A vigorous step seemed to have been taken towards securing the country to the south of Algiers. About the same time Oran on the west was occupied; and though at first it was made over to Tunis, with the view of forming a counterpoise to the power of Morocco, it was presently found necessary to garrison it with French troops. Bona on the east had been seized when Algiers itself was taken; but it could hardly be said to be a source of strength to the French unless it could be used as a point of departure for the assault and capture of Constantina. So Clausel would probably have used it; but just at the critical time he was succeeded by Berthezène, and with him came a change of policy. Clausel is said to have called Algeria a paradise; Berthe

*M. V. de Mars refers the origin of the word 'Zouave' to the name of a confederation of tribes called Zouaoua, and seems to imply that the French were the first to use it. But we find Pananti giving the name Zouavi to the native soldiers under the Turks. He describes them as Moorish soldiers commanded by Turkish officers, and compares their organization to that of the Bengal sepoys.

I

zène to have spoken of it as an accursed | been attended with some diminution of enplace, of which it would be impossible to thusiasm. But the expedition was deterbe rid too soon. For a time it seemed as mined on; and 30,000 men were placed if nothing was to be attempted beyond a co- under the command of Marshal Clausel, lonial establishment limited to the very who was accomponied by the king's seneighbourhood of Algiers. The views of cond son, the Duc de Nemours. It was in the government at home were hesitating this expedition that Changarnier, on one and uncertain. When Algeria was visited occasion, said to those who were following by Campbell in 1836 he found the reten- him into action- Come on, my men; they tion of the colony treated almost as an open are 6000, we are 300: you see we are question, and on his return through Paris, equal!' There can be no doubt of the galwhere he had a conversation with Louis lantry with which the campaign was conPhilippe on the subject, still saw reason to ducted. But it was altogether unsuccessful. regard the problem as awaiting its solution. The French army received a very serious Nevertheless, the French power made pro- check, and then it was that the warlike spigress on the whole. Fighting was neces- rit of the nation was thoroughly kindled. sary; and this fighting commonly ended in It was said of Constantina, as formerly of victory. In Paris a decided step was taken Carthage, Delenda est.' by the ordonnances of July 23, 1834,which made formal mention of the French possessions in Northern Africa.' Meanwhile that remarkable man, whose name has been connected with all the subsequent annals of Algerian warfare, began to make his influence felt throughout the whole region which lies in the south of Oran. At first it was thought safe and prudent to make treaties with Abd-el-Kader; and for a time it seemed that mutual concessions would secure what was desirable on both sides. But the prophet-chief was too wily to be really held by these agreements, and too fanatical to be content with a compromise between the Crescent and the Cross. His movements on the Scheliff became presently so formidable, that it was determined to send Marshal Clausel once more, and the Duke of Orleans with him. Still there was difference of opinion at Paris as to the course which should be followed. The saying attributed to the Duc de Broglie, Alger n'est qu'une loge à l'opéra,' may be regarded as an indication that there were many who would willingly have seen the undertaking given up. In truth, it was evident that France had done either too much or too little. An army of 10,000. men was not enough to secure the conquest of Algeria; but it was far too great to make it possible for the Moors and Arabs to remain quiet. Of those who were decidedly bent on the vigorous prosecution of the war, the most energetic were Thiers-who was in office in 1836, and who saw that Africa might be made a nursery of soldiers worthy of the Empire-and Clausel himself, who urged in the strongest language that an expedition against Constantina was essential for the purpose of striking a blow that would be felt in Eastern Algeria. The change of ministry, when Molé succeeded Thiers, appears to have

Constantina was now about to become the scene of the most conspicuous victory of the French arms in the course of their conquest of Algeria. General Damrémont was placed at the head of the new expedition, and the first division was commanded by the Duc de Nemours. The siege-train was disembarked at Bona. The march was laborious. But in due time the army took position on the plateaux, which, on one side (and on one side only), give the means of opening a cannonade on the city. The reception was one of fierce defiance. The hated Mussulman flags waved in scorn over the battlements, and discordant cries and yells of women filled the hot air. When an officer was sent, proposing terms of surrender, a proud answer was given worthy of Numantia or Londonderry-'If you want powder we will give you some; if you want biscuit we will share ours with you.' One of the first events of the siege was a disaster to the French.-The Commander-in-Chief, standing incautiously, and against the advice of his staff, within range of the enemy's guns, was struck by a ball and died almost immediately. General Vallée, who had seen much service in the wars of the Empire, took the command, and after a severe struggle he brought the siege to a successful issue.

Constantina was taken on Friday the 13th of October, 1837. An old Moorish prophecy had said that the city should be captured on a Friday. The doom of the Mahomedan supremacy on this coast was really come. Though much remained to be done among the Arabs and Kabyles, the last Turkish stronghold had fallen. After several days of anxious suspense the news was brought by telegraph to Paris on the 23rd of October. The satisfaction with which it was received was extreme. The ministry of the day was consolidated by