PRÆSEPE-PRAIRIE-DOG.

species of offense of the nature of a contempt against the the residences of the officials; (2) the Hradschin, surmounted sovereign and his government, and punishable with forfeiture and imprisonment.

tached to the person of Scipio Africanus, who, according | squares, with many modern palaces, charitable institutions, to Festus, received sixfold pay, and the exigencies of the civil wars naturally increased their number; but it was to Augustus that the institution of them as a separate force is owing.

PRAIRIE DU CHIEN-PRE-ADAMITES.

tip. The name seems to have been given to it from its frequent 1865 and 1866 were spent in Europe in study and travel. utterance of a sound somewhat like

PREBEND-PRELATE.

of stunted frame.

2081

Précy, Comte de, (LOUIS FRANÇOIS PERRIN,) an illus. trious Fr. general, b. 1742, d. 1820.

commentary on the 12th, 13th, and 14th verses of the 5th mediocity. Yet there are numerous exceptions, such as Johnchapter of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, which was fol- son, Mozart, Fergusson, Macaulay, and Davy, where early lowed in the same yr. by the first part of a formal treatise on genius grew into great and masculine powers. This rapid de the Pre-Adamite hypothesis, and the theological consequences velopment in infancy or youth of faculties which are generally to be derived therefrom. According to his hypothesis Adam the result of protracted growth, and the intuitive acquisition was the progenitor of the Jewish race only, and it is only of of knowledge, which, under ordinary circumstances, is athim and his race that the Bible is designed to supply the his- tained by laborious effort and cultivation, are most frequent tory. As his book was published in the Low Countries, he|ly witnessed in those of feeble and delicate constitution and fell under the animadversion of the Inquisition, and eventually was arrested in the diocese of Mechlin, but was released at the instance of the Prince of Condé. Other eminent names have been associated with the advocacy of this theory in modern times, such as those of Lyell, Winchell, Milne-Edwards, etc. One argument in favor of the Pre-Adamite theory is the difficulty of tracing to a common ancestor-Adamthe great divisions of the human family, the brown, the yellow, and the black races; and it is also claimed that the Mosaic chronology does not allow sufficient time for the great divergences in human types to have taken place. Certain human remains have been found, underlying the strata of the globe, in caves of Brittany and elsewhere, and in connection with the lake dwellings, which Lyell claims point clearly to the existence of man on the earth at a period antedating by many centuries the date usually assigned to the creation of Adam.

Preb'end, the income or other provision assigned for the maintenance of a so-called prebendary out of the revenue of a cathedral or collegiate church. After the definite constitution of the chapters for the maintenance of the daily relig. ious services in the bishop's church, or in other churches similarly established, endowments were assigned to them, which were to be distributed (præbendæ) in fixed proportions among the members.

Preble, (EDWARD, U.S.N.,) an Amer. sailor and commodore; commanded the squadron sent to Tripoli, and concluded peaceful negotiations with Morocco; b. 1761, d. 1807. Preb'le, (WILLIAM PITT, LL.D.,) diplomate; minister to the Netherlands 1829; held other important official tions; b. at York, Me., 1783, d. 1857.

Predestina'tion, a theological word used to denote the eternal decree of God, whereby "the elect" are fore-ordained to salvation. The correlative decree, whereby others are held to be fore-ordained to perdition, (though it might with perfect correctness of language be included under the same term,) is commonly distinguished by the other term-Reprobation. The theory of P. had, like the doctrine of Election, its ori gin in the attempts of theological system to define the relations of the human and the divine will, and to reconcile the phenomena or human freedom with the belief in the divine Omnipotence. God's absolute will is represented by it as determining the eternal destiny of man, not according to the foreknown character of those whose fate is so determined, but according to God's own mere choice. They who are "thus fore-ordained to eternal life" are led to believe and live by the "irresistible grace" of the Holy Spirit. In human salvation, therefore, God's will is every thing, man's nothing.

Preemption, the act of a belligerent in seizing articles not exactly contraband, intended for the use of the enemy, and affixing a price thereto.

Preemption Laws. See HOMESTEAD AND LAND Laws. Pre-exist'ence, Doctrine of. The notion that human souls were in existence before the generation of the bodies with which they are united in this world was anciently and is still widely spread throughout the East. The Greek phiposi-losophers too, especially those who held the doctrine of Transmigration, as the Pythagoreans, Empedocles, and even Plato, were familiar with the conception. Among the early Christians the assumption of such pre-existence was connected with the belief that God created the souls of men before the world, and that these were united with human bodies at gen

Prefet, the name of an important magistrate in modern France, so called from his exercising functions somewhat similar to those of the Præfectus urbi at Rome.

Preced ́ence, the order in which individuals are entitled to follow one another in a state procession or on other public occasions. We find questions of P. arising in very early ages both in Europe and in the East. Where such questions have arisen among embassadors, as the representatives of differ-eration or at birth. ent countries, great tenacity has often been shown in supporting the claims to rank of the states represented. Prec'edents, in Law, are judicial decisions serving as rules for future determination in similar or analogous cases. Precen'tor, the official in a chapter, whether cathedral or collegiate, whose duty it was to lead the singing. He commenced the psalm or hymn, which was taken up and repeated either by the celebrant or another of the body, or by the rest of the choir. Among Presb., Meth., and Cong. bodies the P. is the official who raises and conducts the psalmody, and is often provided with a desk immediately beneath the pulpit.

Pre'cept, a legal term, used in law in certain departments, generally signifies an order to do something.

Precep'tory, the name given to certain houses of the Knights Templar, the superiors of which were called Knights Preceptor.

Precession of the Equinoxes. See EQUINOXES, PRE

CESSION OF THE.

Precious Stones, a name almost synonymous with Gems in its widest sense, and partially extended to stones of larger size employed for ornamental purposes, but not to those which are used in architecture.

Precipita'tion, in Chem., is an operation in which decomposition occurs in a fluid, either through the action of the air, or of a gas, or of a chemical agent in solution, and is accompanied by the deposition of a solid substance that was previously held in solution. The substance employed to produce the P. is called the precipitant, and the substance which is separated by its action the precipitate.

Precoc'ity has been regarded as an indication of cerebral disease, and the Amer. physicians have not hesitated to identify this manifestation with chronic inflammation of the membranes of the brain. If it is not always, it is often, associated with such intense activity of the whole system, and with morbid conditions, such as the scrofulous diathesis, as to usher in actual disease, premature decay, and early death. The decay often consists in mental feebleness and fatuity, or, where no such formidable issue follows, in the reduction of what promised to be transcendent genius to commonplace

Pre'gel, a river of Prussia, rises in the prov. of East Prussia, flows almost due W. past Welhau and Königsberg, and after a course of more than 90 m. enters the Frisches Haff.

Preg'nancy, (Lat. præ and genere, "to beget,") the state of a female who has within her a fecundated germ, which gradually becomes developed in the uterus, though sometimes outside. When in the cavity of the uterus it becomes attached to the inner surface of that organ, and obtains from it indirectly the nutriment for its gradual development, dur. ing the space of 10 lunar months, or 280 days, when par. turition or expulsion of the fœtus occurs.

Prehistoric Remains. See PALEONTOLOGY and AR

CHEOLOGY.

Preh'nite, a mineral composed chiefly of silica, alumina, and lime, the silica sometimes about 50 per cent. of the whole; but with small and variable proportions of peroxide of iron, peroxide of manganese, potash, soda, and water. P. exhibits a great variety of forms, with considerable variety of color; being found in crystals in fan-shaped and coxcomb-like groups, granular, rentiform, fibrous, etc. It is colorless, or more generally greenish, and sometimes yellowish.

Prejeval'sky, (Gen. PAUL,) a famous Russian explorer, one of the most brilliant of the great travelers of this century, was b. about 1838, d. at Tashkend 1888. He was on his way to undertake his fifth series of explorations in Central Asia, and he intended to try once more to reach Llassa, the cap. of Thibet. In four previous journeys Gen. P. trav eled about 20,000 m., and he enriched the museums of his country with many thousands of specimens of the imperfectly known flora and fauna of the lofty plateaus and immense deserts of Central Asia.

Prel'ate, in Church Law, is the name given to the holders of those higher dignities in the Church to which, of their own right, is attached a proper jurisdiction not derived by delegation from any superior official. In this sense the name comprises not only Ps. of the first class, as bishops, but

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PRELUDE-PRESBYTERIANS.

also the heads of religious orders, abbots or priors of relig-cently manifested in some of the Presb. churches. Some P. ious houses, and other similar ecclesiastical dignitaries.

Prelude, in Mus., a short preface or introduction to a piece, intended to awaken the attention of the audience, generally smooth and flowing, and consisting of a short motive which is kept throughout, or it may be composed of a succession of harmonies uninterrupted or connected by pas-all systems that have ever existed in the Church, the most sages.

Prem'ises, a common legal term to signify a house or building, and the outhouses and places belonging to it, all of which are treated as one thing. It is also used to denote a certain part of an English deed, which is further subdivided into the form, date, parties, recitals, testatum, and parcels. Premonstraten'sian Order, a religious order which at one time was among the most numerous and powerful of the monastic bodies of Germany, in which country its most important houses were established. It was founded in the early part of the 12th c. by St. Norbert, a native of Xanten, in the diocese of Cleves, of which church he was a canon. Preʼmorse, in Bot., terminated abruptly as if bitten off, said of roots or leaves that have an abrupt, ragged, or irregular termination. See LEAVES.

Prence, (THOMAS,) an early New England colonist, and one of the first settlers of Mass.; Gov. of Mass. 1634-73; b. in England 1601, d. 1673.

Pren'tice, (GEORGE D.,) journalist; editor of the Weekly Review, Hartford, 1828-30, and of the Louisville Journal, 1830-70; b. in Conn. 1802, d. 1870.

Pren'tiss, (GEORGE L., D.D.,) a distinguished Presb. pastor in New York, and professor in the Union Theological Seminary; b. in Me. 1816. ELIZABETH P. P., wife of the above, has written many interesting and useful books for children and youth, among them Stepping Heavenward, Urbane and his Friends, etc.; b. in Me. 1818, d. 1878.

Prenzlau, or Prenz'low, a town of Prussia, in the prov. of Brandenburg; pop. 15,731.

Preposi'tions are words that express certain relations between ideas-between the idea of an action and the idea of a thing, or between the idea of one thing and the idea of another thing. A preposition is distinguished from an adverb by its always acquiring an object (a noun or pronoun) after it. Many relations are expressed by prepositional phrases, as, instead of, with regard to, apart from. Of the relations expressed in the modern forms in the Aryan tongues by P. a great many were formerly expressed by

maintain the divine right of presbytery as the one system of church government authorized by the word of God; others only maintain that Presbyterianism is consistent with the word of God, while many P. maintain that the Presb. system, whatever its imperfections as existing anywhere, is, of agreeable to the principles of church government which may be deduced from Scripture. Presbyterianism, variously modified, is the form of church government subsisting in many Protestant Churches, but it is most perfectly developed in Britain and Am. In Britain it prevails chiefly in Scotland, although at the revolution in the 17th c. it was for a very short time in the ascendent in England also. The consistorial system of the continent of Europe (see CONSISTORY) cannot, in any of its modifications, be regarded as essentially Presby terian, although in some respects it approaches Presbyterianism. The French consistorial system is more nearly Presby terian than the German, and is not perfectly so only from the pressure of the civil power. In other Churches, also, as well as in the Protestant Church of France, Presbyterianism is more or less modified by the relations of the Church to the State. The Presbyterian Church in Scotland.-The first General Assembly, consisting of six ministers and 34 laymen, was organized in Edinburgh, Dec. 20, 1560. Until that date the reformers had used the "Book of Common Order," in use by the English Church at Geneva. Early in that yr. (1560) the Privy Council appointed a commission of five persons, includ ing the famous John Knox, the great Scottish reformer, who had since separated from the R. C. Church in 1535, but who did not openly proclaim himself a Protestant until 1543. Later, Knox greatly encouraged the reformers until the yr. above named, 1560, when the Scottish Parliament threw off the old Church affiliation, and founded the now renowned Kirk or Church of Scotland. The commission of five, referred to above, committed to paper "their judgments touching the Reformation." The first Book of Discipline presented by the commission was adopted by the churches but was rejected by the nobles, who were charged with desiring to appropriate to themselves the patrimony of the old Church The second Book of Discipline appeared in 1581, deriving its system directly from the Scriptures. This was at once adopted by the Assembly, and soon confirmed by King James. This is still in force, as is the Westminster formula of doctrine which was confirmed at the same time. By the persistent efforts of Knox and Melville the throne recog nized by formal decree the new system of doctrine (Calvinistic) and government, and the Presbyterian Church became the established Church of Scotland. An act of Parliament finally confirmed the whole body in 1592, with the signature of James, (I. of England and VI. of Scotland.) A few yrs. Presbyte'rians. The title P. comes from the Greek later the king began to intrigue for the establishment of the word presbytaros, meaning "senior" or "elder," and is appro- English Episcopal system, and the bloody riots and persecu priated by the P. because their church government is based tions which followed during his reign and that of his succes upon the principle of government by ministers and ruling sors, Charles I. and James II., and the downfall of the House elders. The P. were first organized into a Church at Edin- of Stuart, are matters of history. It has been well said burgh, Scotland, Dec. 3, 1557. This was done in protest "the Scottish P. made good martyrs." In 1690, after the against the prelatical churches which had become much cor- long sad yrs. of persecution and trouble, the Scotch P. were rupted in their hierarchy. The first Covenant was sub- again relieved of the pressure of prelacy, and the Westminscribed by several of the Scotch nobility. The government ster Confession was once more recognized by royal decree. of the local church or society was lodged in a directory called A minority of able, earnest zealots opposed the new order, the "Kirk 19 or "Session," consisting of the minister, or and as a result the Reformed Presbyterian Church was orministers, if there were more than one, and the lay elders, ganized. This secession took place in 1681, but the separate one of the ministers presiding, and all, whether lay or cler-churches were not organized into a presbytery till 1743. ical, having equal right to vote. From the decisions of this The Presbyterian Church has been recognized as the State session or kirk an appeal lies to the presbytery, which is usu- Church of Scotland since 1707, as fully as the Episcopal ally constituted of the ministers of a certain number of con- Church has been recognized as the Established Church of gregations and one "ruling elder" from each congregation. England. The WESTMINSTER CONFESSION (q. v.) and the Further appeals may be taken to Synods and General As- Larger and Shorter Catechisms contain the doctrinal formula semblies, in churches so large that for convenience the pres- of the Church. No liturgy or form of prayer is used byteries of a district are grouped into a "Provincial Synod," Secession from the Church of Scotland.-The origin of the and all the provincial synods are subordinated to a General Reformed Presbyterian Church is given above. The United Assembly; but in respect of this there are considerable Presbyterian Church of Scotland was organized by a union diversities, and the "supreme" church court, whether Synod of the Secession Church and the Relief Presbyterians, who or General Assembly, is variously constituted by direct repre- separated from the old Church (the former in 1733 and the sentation of each congregation, of each presbytery, or of latter in 1760) because they were unwilling to permit the each provincial synod. Nor are diversities of this kind re State to dominate the churches in the appointment of minisgarded as in the least degree affecting the principle of Pres-ters. In 1834 the Scottish General Assembly passed the byterianism. Presb. churches generally recognize an order of Deacons as existing in the Church, with power only over its secular affairs; but in many Presb. churches this office is merged in that of the elder, and all its functions are exercised by the members of the kirk-session. A tendency to revive the distinct office of deacon has, however, been re.

cases.

Pres'burg, a town in the extreme W. of Hungary, close upon the frontier of Lower Austria; pop. 46,544. Presbyo'pia, (Gr. presbys, “old," and ops, "eye,") farsightedness, the opposite of Myopia. Perfect vision is called Emmetropia.

famous "Veto Edict," giving to church sessions the right to reject any state appointment which they should not approve. The state court set aside this act, and its decision was sustained on appeal to the higher court. For a while the Assembly yielded, but the fires of opposition burned too intensely to be smothered, the famous disruption of 1843 took place

PRESBYTERIANS.

2083

and the Free Church of Scotland was organized. The seces- and again in 1803, and discontinued in 1869, having been sion was led by Chalmers, Candlish, Welsh, Cunningham, and valued at 14 yrs.' purchase, and a capital sum paid over others. The Free Church took off about one half of the therefor. In 1830 a separation took place from the Arians, membership, and at once became a powerful rival. From who then formed the "Remonstrant Synod of Ulster," Arian that time the record is that of three influential Presbyterian views having become very prevalent among the P. of Ireland. Churches in Scotland, viz.: The Established Church of Scot-But since that date the Irish Presbyterian Church has conland, The United Presbyterian Church, and The Free Church, tinued to increase, and the Remonstrant or Arian body has (into which the Reformed Church merged in 1876.) The Pres- not increased in like proportion. In 1840 a union took byterian Church in England.-The first presbytery in En- place of the Irish Presbyterian Church, forming the "Synod gland was organized in 1572 at Wandsworth, in Surrey, by of Ulster," and the "Secession Church in Ireland," an offministers of London and its neighborhood separating from shoot of the Scottish Secession Church, which then reckoned the Church of England, and other presbyteries were soon 141 congregations in the N. of Ireland. The Irish Presbyformed, notwithstanding the extreme hostility of Queen Eliza-terian Church has not only displayed much zeal for the adbeth. When the Westminster Assembly met in 1643 the vancement of Protestantism in Ireland, but also of ChrisPuritans of England were generally inclined to adopt Presby- tianity in other parts of the world, and supports a very sucterianism as their system of church government, although cessful mission in Guzerat. Welsh Calvinistic Methodists some still preferred a modified episcopacy, and some had originated in Wales under the labors of Howell Harris adopted the principles of Independency, or Congregationalism. and George Whitefield, and were first organized in 1743. The P. were, however, the strongest party in the beginning of They were Methodists in form and usages, (having classes the Revolution, although the Independents gained the ascend- and love-feasts,) but adopted the Calvinistic interpretation of ency afterward. The establishment of the Presb. polity and the Articles of Religion of the Church of England. There government in the Church of England was voted by Parlia- were three divisions: (1) Lady Huntingdon Methodists, ment, (the Long Parliament,) Oct. 13, 1647, but it was named after the eminent English lady who opened her parnever really established. The influence of the Independents lors for the services of Mr. Whitefield and espoused his Calprevented it. London and its neighborhood were, mean- vinistic views; (2) the Tabernacle Connection of Mr. Whitewhile, formed into 12 presbyteries, constituting the Provin- field; and (3) the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, who were cial Synod of London, which continued to hold regular half- early organized by Howell Harris and his associates. The yearly meetings till 1655, the meeting of presbyteries being first "Confession of Faith ever published by the Calvinistic continued till a later date; but the whole Presb. system Methodists was in 1823, and for several yrs. afterward the was overthrown by Cromwell's Committee of Triers, ap- denomination was divided on the question of the extent of pointed for the examining and approving of all persons the Atonement, one party adopting the Arminian view and elected or nominated to any ecclesiastical office. Cromwell's the other the Calvinistic view. The words "and those only policy aimed at bringing all ecclesiastical matters under the in Article VIII. of the "Confession of Faith" gave great immediate control of the civil power. The Restoration was offense to many, but the controversy greatly diminished after followed by the fruitless Savoy Conference, and soon after the Assembly in 1875 agreed to add to the article these by the Act of Uniformity, which came into force on Aug. 24, words: "None will perish because of the insufficiency in the 1662; and on that day about 2,000 ministers in England and Atonement, but all because they will not come to Christ to Wales resigned their benefices, or submitted to be rejected be saved; and those men will have no excuse for their negfrom them, for conscience' sake. The first Non-conformists lect of Christ." The Church has elders and deacons and were mostly P., but a small minority of Independents among presbyteries after the manner of the Presbyterian Church. The them prevented the institution of a regular Presb. system, Presbyterian Church in America dates from 1684, when a and the consequence was that the Non-conformists of England church was organized by Francis Makenzie, at Rehoboth, became, in general, practically independent. Antinomianism Md., and soon after another at Snow Hill, and another in and Arminianism soon appeared among them, and were fol- Princess Anne. The testimony presented to the Second Presby lowed by Socinianism or Unitarianism to such an extent that terian Alliance, held in Philadelphia in 1880, shows that the name Presbyterian became synonymous in England with these churches were the first Presb. churches ever organized Socinian or Unitarian; old endowments, legacies of P., being on the Amer. continent. The first presbytery was held in in many instances enjoyed by Unitarians. Meanwhile there Philadelphia in 1705. A synod, consisting of four presbyexisted in England a few congregations connected with the teries, was constituted in 1716. Dissensions ensued; but in Church of Scotland and with the Scottish Secession Church; 1758 the Amer. Presb. churches were united in one. In and these were formed into churches connected more or less 1785, and subsequent to the Revolutionary War, the docintimately with the Scottish Presb. churches, to which other trinal standards were revised, and plans were initiated for a English congregations allied themselves. Of late the P. of complete system of organization of the Presbyterian Church England have shown a strong inclination to dissociate them in the U. S. In May, 1788, the General Synod (embracing selves from the Presb. churches of Scotland, of which they four synods, viz.: New York and New Jersey, Philadelphia, assert a complete independence. The Presbyterian Church Virginia, and the Carolinas) convened, and resolved itself inu in Ireland originated in the settlement of Ulster by Scot- a General Assembly. It included 17 presbyteries, 419 contish colonists during the reign of James I. Scottish ministers gregations, and 180 ministers. The Westminster Confession carried over to Ireland their peculiar views, and after various was re-adopted with three slight alterations, (chapters xxi, struggles a Presbyterian Church was founded by the forma- xxiii, and xxxi,) and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, tion of a presbytery at Carrickfergus, June 10, 1642. The with only a single alteration. In 1801 a friendly “Plan of Presb. population of Ulster was greatly increased in number by Union" with the Congregationalists was adopted, under the immigration from Scotland about the middle of the 17th c.; provisions of which a Cong. pastor could be installed and, notwithstanding many difficulties, from the opposition over a Presb. church, and a Presb. pastor over a Cong. church, of prelates and of the civil power, the Church continued to and each pastor still retain his seat in his original presby. increase. It is a curious fact that the Presb. ministers re- tery or association. In 1834 a majority of the Associate Received a pension from government under Charles II., in 1672, formed Church united with and was merged into the Presby which Regium Donum, however, was not regularly paid, and terian Church. In 1837 a majority of the General Assembly soon ceased to be expected by the Presb. ministers. In the succeeded in annulling the "Plan of Union" of 1801 with reign of William the Regium Donum was augmented, al- the Congregational Church, on the ground that the latter though only the paltry amount in all of £1,200 a yr. The arrangement led to laxity in both doctrine and discipline, and sum was, however, repeatedly augmented, until it amounted in 1838 the two parties on this question and on that of the to £70 for each minister. A seminary for the education of interpretation of some of the distinctively Calvinistic docministers was also erected at Killaleagh. In 1710 the synod trinal articles separated into what became known as the Old of the Presbyterian Church resolved to institute the preach- School and New School Churches; the latter organized a ing of the Gospel to the Irish in their own language. During separate General Assembly. Each body held to the same this period of its history the Irish Presbyterian Church ex- name, and claimed to be "The General Assembly of the perienced the utmost opposition from the High Church party. Presbyterian Church in the U. S." Both Churches grew in Afterward dissensions sprung up within it, and these with numbers and influence. In 1871 the Old and New School reference to the most important doctrines. A body opposed Churches were reunited. At that time the former comprised to the doctrine of the Westminster Confession of Faith was 2,381 ministers, 2,740 churches, and 258,903 communicants; organized as the Presbytery of Antrim. But the Irish Presby- the latter, 1,848 ministers, 1,631 churches, and 172,560 com. terian Church itself became, to a large extent, Arian or municants. The Old School P. possessed the following the Unitarian. The Regium Donum was augmented in 1792, ological seminaries. Princeton, (Princeton, N. J.,) Western,