PRIDEAUX-PRIME.

fruit resembling a fig or pear, with clusters of prickles on
the skin, mucilaginous, generally eatable-that of some spe-
cies pleasant, that of others insipid.
The prickles of some species are so
strong, and their stems grow up in
such number and strength, that they
are used for hedge plants in warm
countries. The common P. P., or In-
dian fig, a native of Va. and more
southern N. Am., is now naturalized
in many parts of the S. of Europe and
N. of Africa, and in rather warm coun-
tries.

Prideaux, (HUMPHREY,) an Eng.
scholar and divine, b. in Cornwall
1648. In 1678 he published an ac-
count of the Arundelian Marbles, un-
der the title of Marmora Oxoniensia,
Prickly Pear.
which greatly increased his fame as a
scholar, and in the following yr, he took the degree of M.A.
He d. 1724. His principal works are Life of Mahomet and
The Connection of the History of the Old and New Testaments.
Prideaux, (JOHN,) soldier; commanded the expedition
sent against Fort Niagara 1759; was killed by the bursting
of a bomb; b. in England 1718.

Prie'go, a Span. town, in the prov. of Cordova; pop. 13,000.

Priess nitz, (VINCENT,) the founder of Hydropathy, b. at Gräfenberg, in Austrian Silesia, where he became a farmer, 1799. It appears that a neighbor who had been in the way of healing trifling wounds on himself and others by means of cold water treated P. successfully in this way for a serious injury from the kick of a horse; and P., having thus had his attention directed to the virtues of cold water, began to give advice to his neighbors how to cure all ailments with cold water. At last, about 1826, strangers began to repair to Gräfenberg, and stay there for some time for treatment; in 1829 there were as many as 49 water patients, and in 1837 the number had risen to 586. P. continued till 1833 to carry on his farming, but after that his practice, and the care of the establishments which he had to provide for the reception and treatment of his patients, fully occupied him. D. 1851. Priest, the title, in its most general signification, of a minister of public worship, but specially applied to the minister of sacrifice or other mediatorial offices. In the early history of mankind the functions of the P. seem to have commonly been discharged by the head of each family; but on the expansion of the family into the state, the office of P. became a public one. It thus came to pass that in many instances the priestly office was associated with that of the Sovereign, whatever might be the particular form of the sovereignty. But in many religious and political bodies, also, the orders were maintained in complete independence, and the Ps. formed a distinct, and, generally speaking, a privileged class. In the Mosaic law the whole theory of the priesthood as a sacrificial and mediatorial office is fully developed. The P. of the Mosaic law stands in the position of a mediator between God and the people; and even if the sacrifices which he offered be regarded as but typical and prospective in their moral efficacy, the P. must be considered as administering them with full authority in all that regards their legal value. In the Christian dispensation the name primitively given to the public ministers of religion was presbyteros, of which the English name "P." is but a form derived through the old French or Roman prestre. The name given in classical Greek to the sacrificing priests of the pagan religion, Gr. hiereus, Lat. sacerdos, is not found in the N. T. explicitly applied to ministers of the Christian ministry, but very early in ecclesiastical use it appears as an ordinary designation; and with those bodies of Christians, Roman Catholics, Greeks, Syrians, and other Orientals who regard the Eucharist as a sacrifice, the two names were applied indiscriminately.

Priest'ley, (JOSEPH,) b. in London, Eng., 1733. In 1755 he became minister to a small congregation at Needham Market, in Suffolk, with an average salary of £30 per annum. While here he composed his work entitled The Scripture Doctrine of Remission, which shows that the Death of Christ is no proper Sacrifice nor Satisfaction for Sin. He seems to have rejected all theological dogmas which appeared to him to rest solely upon the interpretation put upon certain passages of the Bible by ecclesiastical authority. Even the fundamental doctrines of the Trinity and of the Atonement he did not consider as warranted by Scripture. In 1766 hel

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was made a member of the Royal Society, and a LL.D. by the University of Edinburgh. "No one," says Dr. Thomp son, "ever entered on the study of chemistry with more disadvantages than Dr. P., and yet few have occupied a more dignified position in it." Subsequently he became minister of a dissenting chapel at Birmingham, and in 1786 wrote his History of Early Opinions Concerning Jesus Christ. His reply to Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution led to his being made a citizen of the French Republic; and this led to a mob on one occasion breaking into his house, and destroying all its contents, books, MSS., scientific instru ments, etc. In 1791 he succeeded to a charge at Hackney, which had become vacant by the resignation of Dr Price. He removed to Am. in 1794, where he was received with respect, if not with enthusiasm. He had the offer of a profes sorship of chemistry at Philadelphia, which he declined. He d. 1804, expressing his satisfaction with having led a life so useful, and his confidence in immortality. Says Cuvier: "As a physicist and chemist the talents of P. were of a high order. He discovered the effect of respiration on the blood, and also discovered nitrous gas, muriatic gas, and oxygen. In 1779 he obtained the Copley medal for his "Observations on the Different Kinds of Air."

Prieur-Duvernois, (CLAUDE ANTOINE,) a Fr. republican, b. 1763, d. 1832. To him is ascribed the reform which rendered weights and measures uniform in France. Priluki, a town of European Russia, in the Govt. of Poltava; pop. 10,670.

Prim, (JUAN,) a Span. general, b. 1814; entered the Span. ish army when but a mere boy; became a colonel in 1837; aided Narvaez, 1843, in the overthrow of Espartero, and as sisted in effecting the return of Queen Maria Christina, who rewarded him by bestowing various honors on him, and mak ing him Gov. of Madrid; in 1844 was imprisoned on an ac cusation of treason, but was soon pardoned, and was appointed Gov. of Porto Rico; was commander-in-chief of the army against Morocco, and was made marquis; in 1861 commanded the Spanish contingent in the allied intervention of France and Spain in Mexico; visited the Army of the Potomac on his way back to Spain; was banished from Madrid in 1864, but on the overthrow of Isabella, in which he aided, was welcomed back to Spain with open arms, and filled the high. est posts in the realm; is said to have furnished the pretext for the Franco-Prussian War by his offer of the Spanish crown to Prince Leopold, etc. He was assassinated in 1870 in the streets of Madrid for having procured in the Cortes the election of Amadeus to the Spanish throne. See AMADEUS. Pri'ma Don'na, (lit. "first lady,") the first female singer in an opera, whether soprano or contralto.

Pri'mæ Vi'æ, (Lat. "the first passages,") the stomach and intestinal canal, the lacteals or absorbents being the Secundæ Viæ.

Pri'mate, the title of that grade in hierarchy which is immediately below the rank of patriarch. The title strictly belongs to the Latin Church, but in its general use it corre sponds with that of exarch in the Greek Church, although there were some exarchs who were not immediately subject to a patriarch. This arose in the Eastern Church from the variation in the limits of the patriarchates, which were not of simultaneous origin; but in the West, where the patriarch was recognized as possessing universal jurisdiction, this exemption of ny particular P. from superior jurisdiction could not of course arise. The P., as such, was the head of a particular Church or country, and held rank, and in some Churches a certain degree of jurisdiction, over all bishops and archbishops within the national Church. This jurisdic tion, however, was confined to the right of visitation and of receiving appeals.

Pri'mates, the name given by Linnæus to the first order of mammalia in his system, and which he placed first because he ranked man among them, and accounted them highest in the scale of nature. He assigned as the characters of the or der incisor teeth in the front of the mouth, four in the upper jaw, in one row; mammæ two, pectoral. In this order he places four genera, Homo, Simia, Lemur, and Vespertilio, corresponding to the Bimana, Quadrumana, and Cheiroptera of Cuvier. The order is now restricted to the lemurs, mar. mosets, monkeys, apes, and man.

Prime, the first of the so-called "lesser hours" of the Roman Breviary. It may be called the public morning prayer of that Church, and corresponds in substance with the morning service of the other ancient liturgies, allowance being made for Latin peculiarities.

Prime, (EDWARD DORR GRIFFIN,) clergyman; associate

PRIME-PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.

Prince Edward Island, a prov. of the Dominion of Canada, in the S. of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and separated from New Bruswick and Nova Scotia by the Strait of Northumberland; 1. 130 m., w. 4 to 34 m.; area 1,365,400 acres, pop. 109,088. It is of great fertility, and the agricultural products are about double the quantity required for local consumption. Of the whole area, consisting of 1,360,000 Prime Vertical, a vertical circle at right angles to acres, 1,300,000 acres are "good" land, and 60,000 acres are the MERIDIAN, (q. v.,) passing through the E. and W. points," poor "land. There are about 1,200,000 acres under cultiand the ZENITH and NADIR, (q. v.)

Primula ceæ, a natural order of exogenous plants, con- Prince'ton, a borough in P. twp., Mercer Co., N. J., on taining more than 200 known species, mostly natives of tem- a branch of the Pennsylvania R.R., 40 m. N.-E. of Philadel perate and cold regions. They are all herbaceous, or scarcely phia. It is pleasantly situated, and contains many elegant half-shrubby, with leaves generally all radical, and no stipules. residences; has a bank, two weekly newspapers, and eight The calyx is 5-cleft, inferior or half-superior, regular, persist-churches. Pop. 3,442. P. is celebrated as the seat of the ent; the corolla, with the limb divided into as many segments as the calyx, rarely wanting; the stamens inserted on the corolla, one opposite to each of its lobes; the ovary 1-celled, the style solitary, the stigma capitate; the capsule with a central placenta and many seeds. Many of the P. have flowers of much beauty, and some are very fragrant, as the Primrose, Cowslip, Auricula, Pimpernel, Loosestrife, etc.

PRINCIPATO CITERIORE-PRINTING.

on the absolute necessity of having some one to act for another in times and places when the latter is not personally present; and, as a general rule, the act of the agent is just as binding on the principal, and produces the same effect as regards his liability, as if the principal had acted in person. Agents are divided into many classes; indeed, nobody can escape, in one capacity or another, being occasionally the agent of somebody else. Attorneys, solicitors, advocates, brokers, auctioneers, etc., may be said to make a business of agency. A wife is, in law, for many purposes of household management, the agent of the husband, and so are the children of the parents. Mercantile agents are generally called brokers. The contract between P. and A. implies that the agent shall keep within the limits of his commission, and that the principal will ratify and accept all his contracts, and relieve him of the liabilities. "The general principal is that an agent is liable to third persons for acts of misfeasance and positive wrong; but for mere non-feasance and negligence in the course of his employment he is answerable only to his principal, and the principal is answerable to the third party. Since agency is generally a personal trust, the principal employing the agent from the opinion which he has of his personal skill and integrity, the latter cannot as a general thing delegate the confidence reposed in him to another. In some cases, however, a usage of trade has been held to authorize an agent to employ a broker." The remuneration of the agent is generally called his commission. As the agent binds his principal, it follows that the principal can be sued by third parties who deal with the agent. The nice distinctions that exist in the law on this subject, as to the mutual rights and liabilities of the parties, are too numerous to be here noticed.

Principa'to Citeriore, or Saler'no, a prov. of southern Italy, in Campania, bordering on the Tyrrhenian Sea; area 2,126 sq. m., pop. 541,738. It is traversed by branches of the Apennines, being level only near the lower Tusciano and Sele. The fisheries are famous. The region around Vesuvius is like a garden. The cap. is Salerno.

Principa'to Ulteriore, or Avellino, a prov. of southern Italy, in Campania, N. of the preceding; area 1,409 sq. m., pop. 375,691. There are marble quarries and fine pasturage. The districts of Avellino, Ariano, and Sant' Angelo de' Lombardi correspond to three natural divisions formed by the Apennines. The cap. is Avellino.

Princip'ia, the abbreviated name by which the celebrated work of Sir Isaac Newton, Philosophic Naturalis Principia Mathematica, is generally known. The P. has passed through many editions and translations, and is the work in which Newton first explained the motions and forces of the solar system from the laws of universal gravitation.

Prin'gle, (THOMAS,) a British man of letters; one of the early editors of Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, the Star, and Constable's Magazine. He emigrated to the Cape of Good Hope in 1820, where he edited the South African Journal, returning to England in 1826. He left many volumes of poems and other writings. B. in Scotland 1789,

d. 1834.

Prings'heim, (NATHANAEL,) a Ger. botanist of Jewish parentage, b. in Silesia in 1823. He was Prof. of Botany at Jena 1864-68, and is known by his minute researches into the anatomy and physiology of cryptogamous plants, and his works on this and other botanical subjects.

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blocks of wood. The work which they intend to be printed is, in the first place, carefully written upon sheets of thin, transparent paper; each of these sheets is glued, with the face downward, upon a thin tablet of hard wood; and the engraver then, with proper instruments, cuts away the wood in all those parts on which nothing is traced, thus leaving the transcribed characters in relief, and ready for P. In this way as many tablets are necessary as there are written pages. No press is used; but when the ink is laid on, and the paper carefully placed above it, a brush is passed over with the proper degree of pressure. A similar kind of P. by blocks, for the production of playing-cards and rude pictures of scriptural subjects, was in use in Europe toward the end of the 14th c. But in all this there was little merit. The great discovery was that of forming every letter or character of the alphabet separately, so as to be capable of rearrangement and forming in succession the pages of a work, thereby

avoiding the interminable labor of cutting new blocks of types for every page. The credit of inventing this simple yet marvelous art is contested by the Dutch in favor of Laurence Koster, between 1420 and 1426; and by the Germans on behalf of Johann Gansfleisch, of the Gutenberg family, about 1438. In all probability the discovery was made almost simultaneously-such a theory being consistent with the general social progress at the period, and the secrecy which both inventors at first maintained respecting their art. The types first employed were of wood; but soon the practice of casting them in metal was introduced. The earliest of these metal types resembled the black-letter in use by transcribers, and one great aim of the first printers was to produce books Print'ing, the art of producing impressions from char- which should closely resemble the works in MS. hither. acters or figures on paper or any other substance. There to in use. Between 1450 and 1455 Gutenberg succeeded in are several distinct branches of this important art-as the P. printing a Bible, copies of which are now exceedingly rare of books with movable types, the P. with engraved copper and valuable. It is in quarto size, double columns, the and steel plates, and the taking of impressions from stone, initial letters of the chapters being executed with the pen, in called Lithography. We have now to describe the art of P. on colors. Besides this Bible some other specimens of the sheets, etc., with movable types, generally called letter-press work of Gutenberg, the produce of his press at Mayence, P., and which may undoubtedly be esteemed the greatest of have been discovered. The Dutch at Haarlem preserve and all human inventions. The art of P. is of comparatively modern show with reverential care similar specimens of early P. by origin, only 400 yrs. having elapsed since the first book was Koster. Mayence, Strasburg, and Haarlem were indisputably issued from the press; yet we have proofs that the principles the places where P. was executed before the art was extended upon which it was ultimately developed existed among the to Rome, Venice, Florence, Milan, Paris, Tours, and other ancient Assyrian nations. Entire and undecayed bricks of Continental cities. Previous to 1471 it had reached these the famed city and tower of Babylon have been found stamped and various other places; and about the same yr. Caxton with various symbolical figures and hieroglyphic characters. introduced the art in England, by setting up a press in In this, however, as in every similar relic of antiquity, the Westminster Abbey. As will be seen from the illustration object which stamped the figures was in one block or piece, given above, the first P.-presses were of rude and clumsy and therefore could be employed only for one distinct sub-construction. The first improvement upon the I.-press was ject. This, though a kind of P., was totally useless for the propagation of literature, on account both of its expensiveness and tediousness. The Chinese are the only existing people who still pursue this rude mode of P. by stamping paper with

made by the celebrated Earl Stanhope. He constructed the press of iron, and that of a size sufficient to print a whcle surface of a sheet, and he applied such a combined action of levers to the screw as to make the pull a great deal less

laborious to the pressmen; the mechanism altogether being work. Machines of this pattern were made by Applegath such as to permit much more rapid and efficient working. A and Cowper for the principal P. establishments in London, multitude of improvements speedily succeeded that of Earl Paris, Edinburgh, and many other cities, and it is nearly upon Stanhope, in most of which the screw was dismissed, the the model of their machines that other manufacturers now pressure being generally effected by levers, or by the simple construct their steam-presses for the execution of ordinary and efficient principle of straightening a joint. Among those book-work. The best P. is done on the stop-cylinder presses, which gained a large share of approbation may be mentioned in which the impression cylinder comes to a standstill and the Columbian press, which was of Amer. invention. This the sheet is taken by the grippers while the cylinder is at press was taken to Great Britain in 1818 by Mr. George Clymer, rest, thus enabling perfect register and avoiding the slight of Philadelphia, and patented. The pressing-power in this variations that are apt to occur in presses in which the sheet instance was procured by a long bar or handle acting upon a is taken by the grippers of a constantly revolving cylinder. combination of exceedingly powerful levers. To secure good As these presses are mostly used for finely illustrated magaP. the following points are essential: (1) The types, carefully zines and books and fine color work, they are of very rigid set, fixed with precision in forms, rendered level all over, so construction and equipped with appliances for a very thorough that all parts may be pressed alike, and the whole properly distribution of the ink, enabling the printing of the most cleaned by a wash of potash lye; (2) a uniform inking of the delicate tints and half-tone. Other presses which are now surface, to give uniformity of color; (3) The paper dampened coming into general use for book-work are the flat-bed perequally, neither too much nor too little, so as to take an fecting presses, which have two impression cylinders and a impression easily and evenly; (4) an equable, firm, and smart type-bed large enough for two forms, one for each side of pressure, and with that degree of steadiness in the mechanism the sheet. The sheet is printed on one side by the first imthat the sheet shall touch and leave the types without shaking pression cylinder, from one of the forms, then transferred to and blurring; (5) care in adjusting the pointers, (or gauge,) the second cylinder and the reverse side printed from the

Huber Horizontal Crank Movement Two-revolution Press for Half-tone Printing and Book-work.

so that perfect register may be secured in printing the second | other form. Only one feeder is required. In the flat-bed side; (6) such frequency in changing fly or under-sheets on perfecting press of C. B. Cottrell & Sons there is a selfthe tympan that the first side shall not get soiled by off-shifting tympan which can be changed in a second's time setting when printing the second side; (7) the laying of small while the press is running at high speed, thus forming a patches on the tympan where, from any inequality, it seems brand new tympan as often as is wanted. The tympan connecessary to bring up the pressing surface to a thorough sists of a roll of thin manilla paper, located just inside one equality. A regard to all these circumstances constitutes the of the openings in the cylinder. The paper comes out through duty of a pressman. P. is now executed by one or other of this opening, passes across the impression surface of the the varieties of cylinder presses, moved generally by steam. cylinder, and goes in through another opening in the cylinder Cylinder-P. is the great modern factor in the history of onto another roll. It winds itself automatically from one the art, progress in which department has been facilitated roll to the other, across the impression surface of the cylinby the invention of inking rollers made of a certain composi- der, but instead of moving slowly it travels across the entire tion to supersede the old process of inking by stuffed balls. surface of the cylinder in one quick movement between im(See ROLLER.) In 1790 Mr. Nicholson, the editor of the pressions, giving an entirely new, fresh tympan each time. Philosophical Journal, procured a patent for certain improve- The tympan can be set to shift in this way once every ten, ments in P., which patent embodies almost every principle twenty, thirty (and up to one hundred and fifty) impressions, since so successfully applied to P.-machines; and although as the form may require. A roll of tympan lasts a day on he did not carry his views into practical effect, little has been fine work, or on common work for a longer period; it can left for subsequent engineers to do but to apply in the most then be used again and again, allowing time to dry. The judicious manner the principles he laid down in his patent. Huber P.-presses are constructed upon the best known prinIn the course of 1818 Messrs. Applegath and Cowper took ciple in applied mechanics, that of the crank movement. out a patent for improvements in cylindrical P.-machinery. These machines are built in four different styles, or series, all The chief improvements were the application of two drums being on the flat-bed principle, and may be enumerated as placed between the cylinders to insure accuracy in the register, follows: The sheet perfecting book press, printing a sheet over and under which the sheet was conveyed in its progress both sides at one feeding; the two-color press, printing two from one cylinder to the other, instead of being carried, as or more colors at one feeding; the two-revolution single-end heretofore, in a straight line from the one cylinder to the press for book and fine cut work; and the "Pony" press for other; and the mode of distributing the ink upon tables in- job work. For fine book and cut work, the two-revolution stead of rollers-two principles which have secured to single-end press has no rival, producing work of the highest machines of this. construction a decided preference for fine grade at a rate far in excess of anything hitherto attempted