over Magna Græcia, Sicily, and Greece itself brought about the Hellenic period, in which Roman civilization became thoroughly Hellenized. The architecture, however, yielded less to this influence than the articles of social or industrial life; sculptors and painters of this period were rare, but architects were numerous, and the ruins still attest vigor and originality of conception, the arch and dome being distinctive features. From the time that Rome became the capitol of the world it is almost impossible to enumerate the public edifices which sprang from the ground and adorned every portion of the imperial city. The decorations of Rome were both idealistic and realistic; fresco decorations, incrustation with marbles and precious stones, statuary and sculpture, became common both

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for internal and external decorations. The Roman monuments may be classified as fortifications, temples, basilicas, theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, stadia, thermæ, triumphal arches, honorary monuments, castra, palaces, houses, villas, gardens, and tombs.

Ro'man Ar'chitecture. Of the early architecture of Rome and the other Latin cities comparatively little is known. With the conquest of Carthage, Greece, and Egypt the Romans became acquainted with the arts of those countries. The great interest of R. A. is that it is a mixture and amalgamation of all ancient styles, and the starting-point for all modern styles. Rome borrowed from Greece the oblong peristylar temple. From the Tuscans, probably, were derived the

The Piazzi del Campidoglio, Rome.

Roman style, and may be seen in all their important works. They piled one order above another, marking each story with the entablature. Arches were thrown from pillar to pillar behind the entablature, and gradually the pier was omitted, and the arch openly thrown from pillar to pillar, the architrave bent round it, and the cornice continued horizontally above. The earliest temples of which remains now exist are those of Jupiter Stator in the Forum, Jupiter Tonans, and Mara Ultor, all of the Augustan epoch, and each with only three columns left. One of the most interesting temples of Rome is the Pantheon. The portico is of the age of Augustus, but the rotunda is probably considerably later. The dome of the interior is a splendid example of the progress of R. A. in developing the use of the arch and transferring the decoration from the exterior to the interior. The

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greatest works of the Romans, however, were not their temples. The basilicas, amphitheaters, and baths are far more numerous and more stupendous as works of art, and all show how well the Romans had succeeded in producing an internal architecture, which at a later period became so useful as a model for Christian buildings. The basilica of Trajan is a type of the Christian wooden-roofed churches; while that of Maxentius contains the germs of the greatest Christian cathedrals. The Roman amphitheaters have never been surpassed for size and grandeur or for suitability to their purpose. And of the baths sufficient remains still exist to prove that the scarcely credible descriptions of contemporaries were surpassed by the magnificence of the buildings themselves. Among the other varied public works of the Romans are their aqueducts and bridges, triumphal arches, pillars of victory, and tombs. Of the tombs of the Romans the earliest and best specimen is that of Cæcilia Metella, (wife of Crassus,) on the Appian Way. It consists of a round drum placed on a square basement, and was probably surmounted by a conical roof. The later tombs of Rome are well worthy of study, as they contain many specimens of the transition toward the Christian style. They are generally vaulted, frequently with domes, as, for instance, the tombs of St. Helena and St. Costanza. Of the domestic architecture of the Romans we have many wonderfully preserved specimens in Herculaneum and Pompeii.

Ro'man Arithmetic differs from the Hindu-Arabic system in the use of letters which do not change value with their position as the Arabic numerals do.

Ro'man Catholic Church, the community of Christians throughout the world who recognize the spiritual supremacy of the Pope or Bishop of Rome, and are united together by the profession of the same faith and the participation of the same sacraments. Although a few other points of doctrinal differences separate the Roman Church from the Greek, Russian, and Oriental communions, yet the most palpable ground of division lies in the claim of supremacy in spiritual jurisdiction on the part of the Roman bishop. The history of the Roman Church, therefore, in relation to the Oriental Churches, is, in fact, the history of this claim to supremacy. In the minds of Roman Catholics the claim of supremacy on the part of the Bishop of Rome rests on the belief that Christ conferred on Peter a "primacy of jurisdiction;" that Peter fixed his see and died at Rome; and thus, that the bishops of Rome, as successors of Peter, have succeeded to his prerogatives of supremacy. The letters of Pope Leo the Great show beyond question that the bishops of Rome, in the commencement of the 5th c., claimed to speak and act with supreme authority; and the first direct challenge to this claim was made by the Patriarch of Constantinople, Acacius; and although Constantinople, in the time of Gregory the Great, and again of Nicholas I., renewed the struggle for supremacy, or even equality, the superior position of Rome continued to be recognized. The separation of the Greek Church and her dependencies, under the patriarch Michael Cerularius in the yr. 1054, was but a narrowing of the territorial jurisdiction of Rome; and even Protestants have recognized the Roman Church of the mediæval period as absorbing in itself almost the whole of European Christendom, and as the only public representative of the Church in the West. The modern political institutions which then began to break upon the world so modified the public relations of Church and State as by degrees to undo the condition of society in which the temporal power of the popes had its foundation. The great revolution of the 16th c. completed the process. Nor was the revolution with which the popes thus found themselves face to face without its influence in the external history of the Roman Church. The latter half of the 16th c. was a period of new life in the Roman Church. The celebration of local synods, the establishment of episcopal seminaries, the organization of schools, and other provisions for religious instruction-above all, the foundation of active religious orders of both sexes-had the effect of arresting the progress of Protestantism, which in many countries had been at first rapid and decisive. From the end of the 16th c., therefore, the position of the R. C. C., especially in her external relations, may be regarded as settled. The local distribution of the rival churches in the world has hardly been altered, except by migration, since that time. But in her relations to the State the Roman Church has since passed through a long and critical struggle. The new theories to which the French Revolution gave currency have still further modified these relations; but in most of the European kingdoms they were re-adjusted after 1815

either by concordat or by some similar mutual agreement. The details of the doctrinal system of the R. C. C. will be best collected and explained from the latest authentic creed, that commonly called "the creed of Pius V.," drawn up as a summary of the authoritative teaching of that ecclesiastical body till the time at which it was written, and published together with certain later doctrinal pronouncements. It is only necessary to premise that, while in the view of Catholics all doctrine must be based on the word of God, written or unwritten, the Church is the only authoritative judge of that rule of faith. The creed of Pius V. is as follows: "I, N. N., with a firm faith believe and profess all and every one of these things which are contained in that creed which the holy Roman Church maketh use of. To wit: I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible, and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, born of the Father before all ages; God of God; Light of Light; true God of the true God; begotten, not made; consubstantial with the Father, by whom all things were made. Who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man. He was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, suffered and was buried. And the third day he rose again according to the Scriptures: he ascended into heaven, sitteth at the right hand of the Father, and shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead; of whose kingdom there shall be no end. I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and life-giver, who proceedeth from the Father and the Son; who, together with the Father and the Son, is adored and glorified; who spake by the prophets; and in one holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I confess one baptism for the remission of sins; and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen." The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and a still more comprehensive body of articles in the memorable Syllabus issued by Pope Pius IX. and in the decrees of the Vatican Council, celebrated under the presidency of the same pontiff, have been added to the former creeds. The doctrinal decisions of this latter council are divided into two sections, the first "on the Catholic Faith," the second "on the Church of Christ." Each section contains "a scheme of doctrine," in which the heads of belief, and the grounds on which they rest, are explained. In the scheme "upon the Church of Christ" are contained, in "an additional chapter," the celebrated declarations regarding the infallibility of the pope. Under the generic name Roman Catholics are comprised all those Christians who acknowledge the supremacy of the Roman pontiff, even though they be not of the Roman or Latin RITE, (q. v.) Not a few individuals and churches of other rites are included under this designation, Greeks, Slavonians, Ruthenians, Syrians, (including Maronites,) Copts, and Armenians; and these communities are permitted to retain their own national liturgy and language, and for the most part their established discipline and usages. As regards its organization for the purposes of ecclesiastical government the normal territorial distribution of the R. C. C. of the several rites in the various cour....es where it exists is into provinces, which are subject to archbishops, and are subdivided into bishoprics, each governed by its own bishop. The following summary shows the statistics of the Church in the U.S. by ecclesiastical provinces, as gathered at the census of 1890:

and other ornaments were frequently taken from the ruins of ancient buildings which abounded there. There is always a certain resemblance to the old forms which distinguishes the Romanesque from the round-arched Gothic which succeeded it. The piers along the aisles are always single columns, generally with caps intended to be Corinthian, and wide arches; the aisles are wide, with open wooden roof. The early Christians also derived their round churches from the Romans. They were probably originally tombs, and were the most sacred places, where the burial-service was said and the sacraments administered. Hence they afterward became baptisteries, and were finally absorbed into the Church, which then contained within itself every thing connected with the Christian service. In Rome there are still some 30 basilicas, and the Romansque style may be said never to have died out there. As we recede from the center we find its influence gradually weaken, and succumb to the northern Gothic style. Thus in Lombardy and Provence it was superseded by the Lombard and Romance styles in the

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probably through the adverb Romanicé, came the term Romance, applied both to the language and to the popular poetry written in it, more especially to the dialect and productions of the troubadours in the S. of France. It is beyond doubt that the several daughters of the mother Latin had their characteristic differences from the very first, as, indeed, was inevitable. French, as was to be expected, is richer in German words than any other member of the family, having 450 not found in the others. Italian is next to French in this respect. The varieties of speech originating in the way now described are divided by Diez into six jurisdictions: (1) The Italian, preserving, as was to be expected, the traits of the mother Latin in more recognizable form than any of the sister tongues. It presents a variety of strongly marked dialects. (2) The Wallachian. (3) The Spanish, which is characterized by copiousness and etymological obscurity, arising from the establishment of so many different nations on the soil. For one element of difference it contains a large number of Arabic words-as many as 500 terms

Roma'ni, (FELICE,) a modern Ital. poet; writer of operatic libretti and lyric poems; also editor of the Gazetta Piemontese; b. at Genoa 1798, d. 1865.

Roman'ic Languages, a general name for those modern languages that are the immediate descendants of the language of ancient Rome. When the Roman Empire was broken up by the irruptions of the northern nations (in the 5th and 6th c.) the intruding tribes stood to the Romanized inhabitant's in the relation of a ruling caste to a subject population. The dominant Germans continued for several centuries to use their native tongue among themselves; but from the first they seem to have acknowledged the supremacy of the Latin for civil and ecclesiastical purposes, and at last the language of the rulers was merged in that of their subjects; the language which underwent this change was not the classical Latin of literature, but a popular Roman language which had been used by the side of the classical. As distinguished from the old lingua Latina, this newly formed language of ordinary intercourse, in its various dialects, was known as the lingua Romana; and from this name,

ian is considered the standard. (4) The Portuguese, including both the language of Portugal and of Galicia. (5) Provençal, the language of the S. of France. From the use of the affirmative oc (yes) the Provençal was known as the Langue d'oc, as the North French was called the Langue d'oil, from oil, modern French oui. The Provençal was at an early period a cultivated language, with a regular system of grammar, and in the 12th and 13th c. produced a rich poetical literature. (6) French extending over the N. half of France and parts of Belgium and Switzerland.

Ro'manoffs, The. The Romanoff dynasty began with Michael Romanoff, who was elected Tzar in 1613, when the dynasty of Rurik came to an end. Michael concluded a truce of 14 yrs. with the Poles and governed the empire wisely. His successor was his son Alexis, who was followed by Fedor III., whose chief achievements were the destruction of the oligarchic factions among the great nobles and the reformation of the police system. Peter the Great continued in the progressive path of his predecessors. He came to the throne in 1682, and d. in 1725. He developed the resources of the country, opened communication with foreign nations, and made Russia one of the greatest powers of Europe. Catharine I., who was governed by her favorite, Mentzikoff, Peter II., and Anne, whose adviser was her lover Biren, succeeded the great Tzar. After the death of Anne the crown descended to her nephew, Ivan VI., who was imprisoned and

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murdered by the regents, his guardians. Then the daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth., was placed on the throne to be succeeded by Peter III. He was strangled by the Orloffs, who offered the crown to Catharine II., surnamed the Great, (1762.) Her reign was as glorious as that of Peter had been. Her son, Paul I., fell a victim to his love for the French nation. He was strangled in his palace in 1801, and his son Alexander I. ascended the throne. Nicholas I., Alexander

the personifications of highest power, highest womanliness, and highest wisdom-Jupiter; Juno, the Queen of Heaven and the tutelary deity of women; and Minerva. The stars also had three foremost representatives-Sol, the sun; Luna, the moon; and Tellus, the earth. The supreme deities of the Infernal Regions were Orcus, Dis and his wife, the Queen of the Empire of the Shadows, Libitina. The element of the water was presided over by Neptune; that of the fire by Vulcan, the god

II., murdered by the Nihilists, and the present emperor, Alexander III., complete the list of Romanoff sovereigns. Ro'man Religion, An'cient. Numa Pompilius, that mythic successor of Romulus, is mentioned as the founder of the Roman religion, or rather ceremonial law. It was as characteristic of the Roman gods to appear in sets as it was for the more personal gods of the Hellenes to appear singly. The Romans, as it were, made them fall rationally into rank and file, each with a distinct mission of its own, and thus filled with them, as with authorities over special departments, the whole visible and invisible world-above, below, and around. The first rank of all is taken by the three Capitoline deities,

of the smithies; Vesta was the goddess of the domestic hearth and its pure flame. Agriculture and rearing cattle were sacred to the ancient Latin king, Saturnus. Ceres, Liber, and Libera, the three Greek deities of agricultural pursuits, were superadded about 500 B.C. Pales was the special protector of the flocks. Mars himself was the supreme deity of the Romans next to Jupiter. The Camena were the prophesying nymphs, of whose number was Egeria, Numa Pompilius's inspirer. The Apollo worship was but of late growth in Rome. The Parcæ represented the unchangeable fate of the individual. Fortuna was, on the contrary, the uncertain chance of destiny, the "luck" to be invoked at all important junctures. Venus