Learning Relies upon Successes. The prime essential to learning, after the random movements out of which the later selected movements arise, is in securing something wanted or needed. Any movement that brings the child something it needs is quickly selected out of the mass of uncoördinated activities. This particular one, then, more easily than the rest, gets itself repeated. One prime factor makes for this selection, this determination, as it is calledsuccess; success in getting something wanted, or success in avoiding something not wanted. Whatever makes for increased comfort, or decreased discomfort, gets learned very quickly. The true determinant of learning is always success. Without the ability to secure it and then to recognize it there is no possible learning.

One of the child's first achievements is to learn to follow a bright light; the method by which it accomplishes this, partly because it is paradoxical, illustrates the point. The retina of the newborn baby is keenly sensitive to light, but only on the outer portions. The central part, the fovea centralis, is at first insensate; it receives no impressions at all. So when a bright light strikes the eyes of the child from one side or the other, it causes discomfort to the sides of the retina; a scramble of random movements begins: eyes, arms, body, neck, feet, and probably voice. In the general twisting and squirming the eyes are brought by accident to the place where the light falls on the unseeing central part of the retina. When this comes about, the child gets relief from the pain, and the eyes stay fixed at that point. Ordinarily we say the child is following the light; but in fact the child is getting away from it. After a few such successful attempts it can fixate the light almost at once, and so is at ease. Likewise with an attempt to avoid other pain, a pin sticking, or an uncomfortable position; it starts by wriggling all over and finally finds out how to get the desired result directly.

The Order of Learning.-This same process goes on in all feats of learning. First must be the random movements in great number; then must come an accidental success; then a repetition of the random movements, probably dimin

ished in number by the success; then another success, followed by the movements again, lessened in number still more; then success again, and finally diminution of the movements to such an extent that they are ultimately reduced to just those that are necessary to get the act done at once, as desired. This is an act of will, volitional action. The last stage comes when the child can do this particular act while obviously engaged in doing something else and this is automatic action, or habit.

In a short formula this learning process can be stated as follows: Random movement, success, movement repeated but less random, more success, gradual elimination of the excess under the stimulus of success, then an act of the will, and finally automatic action, or habit.

The process of learning to speak and to read follows just this course. It must begin with random, misdirected, aimless, and excess movement, and come finally to controlled and then to automatic action.

The child learns to speak by first cooing, gurgling, and wailing. All of this is entirely random and aimless. Gradually certain of these sounds become connected with certain rewards or penalties, and the useful ones are more readily made than all others, while the dangerous ones drop out of the child's incipient conversation. Later, certain words are shaped in response to successful social benefits gained; definite nuances of slide, tone, force, and rate are added as the child grows in years and wisdom and social adaptability, until, eventually, enough mastery is gained over the voice to satisfy life's needs, so that, finally, in conversation. and reading the voice mechanism will work automatically.

Increase of Skill Follows the Course of the Learning Process. By the precisely same process must facility and skill be increased. Take a boy trying to recite a heroic poem; he himself is not heroic and his own words are never uttered in the heroic manner. What the heroic manner is he does not precisely know. So what does he do? He does just what every learner must do: he "makes a stagger at it." This is random movement, guided partly by certain scraps of knowledge of what he is aiming at. But in the

main it is a case of hit or miss. Of the two the miss is the more likely; then follow more misses, until ultimately comes success, to a large degree accidental; yet with intelligent beings possessed of normal powers it is very largely directed and adapted from previous bits of experience. Finally the learner eliminates the misses and can do the thing right the first time.

This process goes into the very minutia of trying out and acquiring new shades of tone and so of achieving new ability to carry meanings. Assume that you feel you have not given just the right shade to your thought and so conclude that the difficulty lies in the range of your slide. You try a new one, probably miss it, then try another, and so on until by the grace of luck and perseverance you hit it. You realize that you have succeeded, and then keep trying until you can get just the right slide when you want to and at the first attempt. Later you repeat it often enough so that the thing comes when you are busy doing something else. So also with action, gesture, force, phrasing, and all the other things necessary to speech.

All our deepest habits, many processes miscalled instincts, our most cherished notions, and our most fixed convictions have come about through this process of cut-and-try, hit-ormiss, work-till-you-get-it combination of random activity plus the activities that have already been fixed into habit and knowledge.

II. THE VALUE OF DRILL

Not All Speaking Is "From Within Outward."-There is a popular error as to learning how to speak that ought not to stand unchallenged: it is the almost universally accepted doctrine that all true oral expression must come "from within outward." True to a large extent yet it is not true altogether. It overlooks one very important consideration that definite additions can undeniably be made to a student's powers of expression by plain drill on detached exercises; and yet such drill comes from the outside. To accept fully the doctrine of "from within outward" is to imply either an instinct for good speech or to assume that

all students come from homes where only effective speaking prevails. Neither of these assumptions is borne out by the facts: early imitation takes the place of instinct, and most children unfortunately imitate poor models.

The value of drill is incalculable. It replaces impotence with power and loosens tongues that are tied. A boy who has never used a resonant head tone, or a girl who has never used a chest tone, is inhibited thereby from uttering various types of valuable sentiments. One who has only a narrow range of pitch cannot possibly express certain intellectual distinctions; and one who has never prolonged his vowels. for emphasis and for showing emotions cannot possibly communicate meanings that involve hitherto unexpressed deep emotions. But once let such a one drill himself in quality, force, time, and pitch enough to meet all occasions, and in careful articulation and pronunciation, and his powers of communication will be immensely enhanced. Meanings heretofore locked in can now get out.

For it is very true in speech that the speaker can give out no more than his bodily and vocal limitations permit. So it is the wisest course imaginable to remove his limitations and to add to his abilities. Drill, even though laid on from without, is a powerful aid to effective speech. Drill is, in a way, patching; but repair shops are a very necessary adjunct to a high state of civilization.

Drill Applicable to All Phases of Speech.-Drill is vital throughout the whole process of preparing for speaking or reading, from the rehearsal of one's outline to the practice of distinctness and the finest shades of slide, resonance, and volume of the vowels. Thus there is need for drill in memorizing a speech, an outline, single sentences, or chosen phrases; in acquiring breath control, in opening the throat, purifying the tone, cultivating touch, gaining vocal energy, holding the tone, increasing the range of pitch, or making the more delicate minor slides and in combining these in rich and fruitful variety for all possible purposes. Then there is also place for drill in constant practice of the use of words-in pronunciation, enunciation, articulation.

on.

III. HELPS TOWARDS LEARNING

1. Will to Learn.-Students sometimes give up and say, "Oh, I can't do that; that's too much for me," or, "That's out of my line," and then wonder why they do not get The reason is that by their attitude they doom themselves to failure by using negative suggestion. If you persistently say you cannot, why then you cannot. But if you say you can, then you have a chance. Positive suggestion, or the will to learn, works wonders.

2. Work Up an Interest in Your Task.-Not much learning is achieved by drudgery; only the one lesson of sticking to drudgery. Learning comes from liking your task. If you do not care for it at first, use positive suggestion; tell yourself it is not so terrible-anyway you will see it through. But if you begin with a genuine and hearty interest, the battle is more than half over. Assume an interest if you have it not to paraphrase "Hamlet."

3. Use Plenty of Yourself.-Too many students try to study when half asleep, with most of the body inert and quite at peace. Men dead in earnest trying to learn a list of prospective voters or customers, or to perform surgical operations more successfully, or to master the law more thoroughly, or to organize a business effectively, are not content to sit down and take it easy. They exert themselves -head, hands, trunk, legs-everything that helps.

You will recall that the things you remember most vividly are the things you have done hard all over. Trace back and see if this is not true. This is what is meant by saying that we learn best under emotion. We do, because emotions mean activity all over.

So, while studying, use hands to write, voice to speak out loud, eyes to get vivid visual imagery, ears to hear your voice, facial expression-in moderation; a free jaw and even active legs and trunk-at least do not sit on your shoulders; move about once in a while and stir your blood.

4. Repeat. It is but a truism that repetition makes for learning. Repeat at one sitting; and repeat sittings. Let things happen in between and then come back to the task