"Seas but join the regions they divide.” -ALEXANDER POPE Chapter II EXPANDING INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND UNDERSTANDING THE OCEANS from earliest times have been bonds of commerce and culture. Historic relationships are changing, however, accelerated by advances in maritime technology that enable nations to conduct activities farther from home and in deeper water, and to exploit previously inaccessible resources. As various national interests in ocean activities converge, international agreements and cooperation will be increasingly needed to reduce conflict and rivalry and to advance world order, understanding, and economic development at home and abroad. The United States has accordingly intensified its efforts to promote international cooperation to attain our major foreign policy goal of establishing a stable and lasting peace. A multi-national approach to the peaceful uses of the sea is not only desirable but necessary because of the inherently international character of scientific study of the sea and the common property aspect of deep ocean resources. The very size, complexity, and variability of the marine environment emphasize the importance of collaboration. As a basis for harmonious international marine exploration and resource development, certain premises underlie our policies and programs: Our knowledge of the seas and their resources is exceedingly limited; the necessary scientific investigations are so vast that international collaboration is essential if knowledge of this environment is to increase within a meaningful period. Excellence, experience, and capabilities in marine science and technology are shared by many nations in addition to the United States, and cooperation in a number of areas can be mutually beneficial. In the search for new food resources, the full potential of the seas has not been fully realized. While very little is known today of the richness and distribution of seabed resources, these resources will eventually be sought to meet a growing demand for energy and minerals. Technology is rapidly becoming available to permit accelerated marine exploration and resource exploitation. Development of ocean resources requires major capital investments. which in turn require some protection of rights for development and exploitation. Uncertainties in the interpretation and application of existing international law may result in conflicts of interest between nations, particularly with regard to the width of territorial seas, rights of innocent passage, and the exploitation of ocean resources. Underlying any legal regime is the need to preserve the traditional freedoms of the seas to permit their peaceful use by all nations. Our international activities in the marine sciences are thus characterized by: -encouragement of increased cooperation among ocean scientists of all nations and broadened dissemination of scientific results; -support of the activities of the many bodies of the United Nations system and other international organizations engaged in oceanic activities and of efforts to improve the international organizational structure; -collaboration with other nations in developing and using new marine technologies within a framework of mutual benefit; -making available marine technology and other assistance to complement the efforts of developing countries in strengthening their capabilities to use the ocean and its resources as a pathway to economic progress, recognizing that aid burdens must be shared by other nations and international organizations; -strengthening of international programs and projects which foster cooperation among neighboring nations to meet common interests and problems; -pursuit of a strengthened code of international law which will preserve the traditional freedoms of the seas, insure that nations have equitable opportunities to participate in the development of the wealth of the ocean, and anticipate and prevent potential conflicts arising out of expanding maritime interests; -development of international legal, financial, and political arrangements to promote investment in marine development and facilitate a fruitful partnership between public and private interests in marine matters. Marine Science in the United Nations1 In the United Nations, the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, and a number of specialized bodies are responsible for various aspects of marine science affairs, as shown in Figure II.1. In 1967, the General Assembly, at its twenty-second session, began consideration of jurisdiction over the deep ocean seabed 2 and related questions. Fifty-eight countries spoke in the debate and assumed a wide range of positions. Some countries advocated that title to the seabed be vested in the United Nations. Others called for a moratorium on unilateral exploitation of seabed resources. Most countries seemed to feel there should be a freeze on claims of national sovereignty to the seabed. Some maritime nations opposed any consideration now by the Assembly. The United States, recognizing that understanding of the factors involved in exploiting these resources is incomplete and that we are far from ready to define a precise legal regime at this time, supported careful study of the issue by the General Assembly. The position of the United States followed the course set by President Lyndon B. Johnson in July 1966 when he said: "Under no circumstances, we believe, must we ever allow the prospects of rich harvest and mineral wealth to create a new form of colonial competition among the maritime nations. We must be careful to avoid a race to grab and to hold the lands under the high seas. We must ensure that the deep seas and the ocean bottoms are, and remain, the legacy of all human beings." The United States proposed that the General Assembly establish a Committee on the Oceans which would be competent to examine all marine questions brought before the Assembly. Such a Committee would stimulate international cooperation in exploration of the oceans. It would assist the General Assembly in considering questions of law and arms control and as a first step might develop a set of principles to govern states in the exploration and use of the seabed. At the conclusion of debate, the General Assembly took a preliminary step 1 The texts of the 1966 and 1967 General Assembly Resolutions on marine matters are presented in Appendix E, Table E-2. "In this chapter "seabed" refers to the ocean floor and its subsoil seaward of the Continental Shelf as defined in the Continental Shelf Convention. by adopting unanimously Resolution 2340 establishing an ad hoc Committee of thirty-five States to prepare a study on various aspects of the seabed. beyond national jurisdiction for consideration by the Assembly next fall. The study will include an examination of (a) activities of the United Nations and its specialized agencies related to the seabed; (b) relevant international agreements; (c) scientific, technical, economic, legal, and other aspects of the question; and (d) suggestions regarding practical ways of promoting international cooperation in the exploration, conservation, and use of the seabed and its resources. Meanwhile, pursuant to the General Assembly Marine Resources Resolution adopted in 1966 as a result of U.S. initiatives, the Secretary General inaugurated a survey of international marine science activities, including consideration of improved coordination between specialized agencies. An international group of experts, convened by the Secretary General, has been requested to outline existing programs and to suggest steps to strengthen international cooperation in the field. The completed report will be used by the ad hoc Committee concerned with the seabed and will be presented to the Assembly this fall. The following specialized agencies and other bodies of the United Nations undertook a variety of new cooperative programs with active participation by the United States: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) International Telecommunication Union (ITU) United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) Some of the programs of particular interest are: -International oceanographic surveys will be conducted in the -Consideration is being given to a West African marine science -Attention is being given to the legal impediments to scientific research (IOC). -Organizational arrangements are being developed for the planning of an Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IOC-WMO). -Radio frequencies were set aside for exclusive use in the transmission of oceanographic data (ITU). |