CHAPTER IX THE EVE OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLT. 1485-1527 190. The Tudor Dynasty: Henry VII. With the coming of the Tudors to the English throne, the transition from medieval to modern conditions in England was nearing its end. Closer fellowship had developed, not only between provinces, but between nations. Beginning of the modern period. Commerce had grown immensely and new interests were being HENRY VII From an engraving by J. Robert. developed which all civilization was coming to share. The Renaissance was at its height: the enthusiasm of the Italian scholar had spread to the lands north of the Alps and across the Channel. Antiquity was being studied as never before, and new worlds were on the point of discovery. In the immediate future lay great changes that could come through revolution only; and the great task of the Tudors was to carry the nation through this revolution with the least possible disturbance and danger to the kingdom. When he seized the English throne, Henry VII was only twenty-eight years old, but he was thoroughly matured, highly THE YORKIST PRETENDERS 215 Henry VII. experienced, and carefully schooled. Most of his lessons, however, had been learned in prison and in exile; still, they were important for the future of England. In all essential respects, Henry Tudor was a modern king. He showed, it is true, some of the medieval fondness for the church and selected his chief advisers from the clerical order; but this could scarcely be avoided, as nearly all the choice Tudor intellects of the land were still to be found in the policies. ranks of the church. He had, however, none of the medieval passion for conquest and warfare. His policy aimed at domestic quiet and peace with the nations of the neighborhood. The first Tudor was not a lovable man: he had no endearing qualities; he was cold, suspicious, and grasping. But he possessed evident business abilities; he was cautious in his dealings with his subjects as with his royal neighbors. Unlike his Yorkist predecessors, he was not a cruel king; he was averse to needless executions and was always willing to show mercy, especially if the royal clemency was likely to bring a financial reward. On the whole the new reign was popular, for it brought the rest and quiet that the nation sorely needed after the long struggle between Lancaster and York. 191. The Yorkist Pretenders: Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck. A fragment of the Yorkist party had survived the slaughter at Bosworth and continued hostile to the new king. Risings and intrigues appeared soon after Henry's accession and continued for more than ten years. Margaret of Burgundy, the widow of Charles the Bold and a sister of Edward IV and Richard III, was exceedingly hostile toward the Tudor dynasty, and the English plotters found her court in the Netherlands a safe rendezvous and a convenient rallying point. Two pretenders were put forward, each claiming to be a Yorkist prince. Lambert Simnel, an Oxford Lambert boy who claimed to be a nephew of the kings Simnel. 1487. Edward and Richard, appeared as early as 1487. Henry knew that he was a fraud, as he had the young prince himself safe in 1 Gardiner, 347. the Tower. The pretender was caught and finally relegated to a subordinate place in the royal kitchen. Perkin More dangerous was Perkin Warbeck,1 a youthful Dutchman, who tried to impersonate Richard, the younger son of Edward IV, who with his brother, Edward V, is believed to have been secretly murdered in the Tower by the orders of their wicked uncle, Richard III. Warbeck's attempt was also a failure; he was seized and imprisoned. The king had intended to be lenient with him, but as a third pretender soon appeared, it was thought necessary to be severe for once and Perkin Warbeck was hanged (1499). 1499. 192. Statutes against Livery and Maintenance.2 Interest in the fallen dynasty was not the only cause of opposition to Henry VII. The Tudors believed in a strong and efficient government and insisted upon order and due respect for law throughout the kingdom. As the more conspicuous offenders were lawless members of the nobility, who wished to continue Livery and as uncontrolled as they had been during the age maintenance. of the Roses, the king's efforts had to be directed largely against men of great power and influence. Early in the reign, steps were taken to enforce certain old statutes against livery and maintenance. The wealthier lords were Disorder in in the habit of keeping large bands of armed retainers at their castles or within easy call: these wore their lord's uniform (livery) and they could always count on the lord's pledge to maintain or support them even in the public courts; this was known as maintenance. The ordinary citizen was often, therefore, at the mercy of the magnates, who frethe kingdom. quently respected neither person nor property. It was this condition that Henry VII tried to remedy. By his efforts in this direction he alienated some of the more prominent noble families; but at the same time he drew the middle classes closer to the Tudor throne: and this union of interest between the monarch and the masses was a source of great strength to the new dynasty. 1 Gardiner, 350-352. 2 Ibid., 281, 321-322, 345-346. THE PRIVY COUNCIL 217 193. The Star Chamber Court. To secure peace and order in the kingdom, the Tudors relied chiefly on the justices of the peace. Henry VII and his successors understood thoroughly how useful the courts of quarter sessions might be to the monarchy, and they did much to develop them.2 As there was no limit to the king's power to appoint justices, he was usually able to keep a friendly majority in charge of the local government in every shire. But in dealing with the nobles these local courts were often helpless. To meet this difficulty, the king trusted to a new judicial and political organ, the Star Chamber court. This was made up of judges selected from the privy council; their particular duty was to seek out offenders among the barons, summon them to trial, and punish the guilty ones. As the star chamber assumed the parts both of accuser and judge and was not hampered by the employment of juries, it proved very efficient for the Chamber. king's purposes. Gradually its activities were extended until a century later it had developed into a powerful engine of tyranny. The Star 194. The Privy Council. In theory the star chamber was merely a committee of the privy council: frequently it was in practice the whole council meeting in judicial session. The reign of Henry VII emphasized the importance of the privy council. The king in the middle ages always had the assistance of a body of councilors; but their share in the administration was not usually well defined. In the Norman The curia period this body was called the curia regis or king's regis. court and was given important and extensive duties as judges and as a committee on finance (exchequer) in addition to their ordinary function of giving the king good counsel. In the reign of Edward I the council came to be known as the "ordinary council," and its importance became more The "ordievident. It was a great honor to belong to this nary council." body and the temptation to reward a faithful baron with a place at the council board was frequently yielded to; and as a consequence the number of councilors grew too large for effi 1 Masterman, 88-89. 2 Review sec. 179. The "privy council." cient work and secrecy. It became customary, therefore, in the fifteenth century, especially in the days of Henry VI and Margaret, to ignore the "ordinary council" as much as possible, and to consult merely a few select members, which were then known by the new name of "privy council." 1 When Henry VII began his reign, the privy council was a comparatively new creation; but the shrewd king realized its great possibilities and entrusted a large share of the administration to this council, or to its various courts or committees. Especially were new forms of business, such as control of Irish affairs and colonial matters, likely to come under the authority of the privy council. Under the Tudors and their successors the Stuarts, the activities of the privy council were extended continuously, until it finally threatened to supersede parliament itself. As the members were chosen by the king, the importance of this body when directed by a strong king is evident. The privy council still enjoys a nominal existence; but nearly all its functions have passed to the cabinet, which in a sense is a committee of the privy council. 195. The King's Financial Methods; Benevolences. The increase in the authority that was wielded by the organs of His Majesty's government was paralleled by an evident decline in the prestige of parliament. It will be remembered that all the kings of the fifteenth century had recognized the supremacy of parliament, but that this body had suffered in popular estimation since it had become an instrument of fac Finance. tions that were seeking revenge. After the first few years of his reign, Henry VII rarely summoned parliament; and when he did, it was usually for the single purpose of levying taxes. Henry VII recognized the right of the commons to control taxation, and was not backward in asking for subsidies; but he did not assume that this was the only source of the royal funds. He found various expedients for increasing his revenue, which, though they were not authorized by law, were not expressly forbidden and for a time served the purpose well. 1 Masterman, 78-80. |