kinds of manly sport, Henry VIII developed a remarkable popularity which he never entirely lost.1

1 Cheyney, Nos. 190 (Erasmus), 195; Kendall, No. 44; Robinson, No. 114; Tuell and Hatch, No. 29 (Jusserand).

WAR WITH SCOTLAND AND BATTLE OF FLODDEN

225

201. The Continental Situation: the "Balance of Power." Wolsey's great strength lay in his diplomacy. It was he who evolved the idea of "balance of power." This meant that the kings of Europe ought not to allow a single state or ruler to become so powerful as to dominate European politics, but should strive, by forming alliances or otherwise, to build up several powers of approximately equal strength. In the earlier decades of the sixteenth century, three great nations laid claim to leadership in European affairs: France, Spain, and Germany. The strength of the German Empire was largely imaginary; but a decade after Henry's accession it took on new importance through its union with Spain in the person of Emperor Charles V. The strife between the jealous kings of France The problem and Spain found a favorable field in Italy where of Italy. each tried to gain a foothold or to extend his territories. The Italian troubles naturally involved the pope and Venice, as leading powers in the peninsula; and England was interested as the supposed ally of Spain. However, it was Wolsey's plan not to commit England too completely, but rather The "balance to throw her influence to the weaker side in the con- of power." flict in order to prevent any nation from becoming too powerful and thus destroy the European balance.

202. War with Scotland and the Battle of Flodden. The attention of Henry and Wolsey was, however, soon drawn to affairs nearer home. In spite of the marriage between King James and the princess Margaret, the relations between England and Scotland continued strained. The old French alliance,1 now two centuries old, had become a habit which the Scotch found it difficult to overcome. While Henry was absent at Calais directing operations in a futile war against France, his brother-in-law James IV invaded the north of England with a strong force. Lord Howard (the earl of Surrey) Flodden Field. was sent against him and on Flodden Field 2 1513. inflicted a defeat on the Scotch that crippled their military

1 Review secs. 123, 131.

2 Innes, I, 263-268; Bates and Coman, 248-257 (Scott, Marmion).

INTELLECTUAL MOVEMENT: OXFORD REFORMERS

227

power for years to come (1513). King James fell in the battle, and for some years Queen Margaret was in chief control of the Scottish government. For twenty years England and Scotland were at peace, except on the border, where private raids continued as of old.

203. The Intellectual Movement: the Oxford Reformers. These years also saw the culmination of the intellectual move.ment that may be called the English Renaissance. This movement did not reach England in one overpowering wave: its various interests came slowly and singly during the period of a hundred years. The importance of Chaucer's enthusiasm for modern English, of Duke Humphrey's activities as a collector of manuscripts, of Selling's work as a teacher of Greek, and of Caxton's achievements as a printer has been discussed in earlier chapters. In the reign of Henry VII, Oxford was the center of the new type of learning and among its chief promoters were Colet, who later established a boy's The Oxford school of a new type at Saint Paul's, London;

4

reformers.

Utopia.

Grocyn, who was professor of Greek; and Linacre, who was instrumental in founding the first medical college in England. Associated with these were Thomas More,2 who became a famous lawyer and was Wolsey's successor in the chancellorship, and the great Dutch scholar Erasmus. Two years after Flodden, Thomas More began to write his famous Utopia, which shows clearly the influence of classical studies, especially of a close reading of Plato's Republic. In the Utopia More outlines the social and political conditions in the land of Nowhere which was located on the "island" visited by the Cabots. The interest of the book lies chiefly in the fact that it brings before us the great prob- Economic lems that called for solution in the Tudor period. conditions in Economic conditions were not satisfactory. Eng- England.

land was steadily growing in wealth; but in this prosperity the masses were not permitted to share.

1 Review secs. 158, 182, 183.

2 Kendall, No. 45.

Prices were fixed arbi

3 Cheyney, No. 187.

4 Cheyney, No. 192; Gardiner, 367–368.

trarily by the merchants who enjoyed practical monopolies, and the cost of living was deemed unreasonably high. At the same time the workingmen were protesting against the laws that fixed maximum wages. Thomas More, as the lone social reformer of the age, worked out solutions for these problems which he embodied in his famous work.

Humanism.

The great purpose of the Oxford reformers was not social but educational: they wished to change radically the methods and subjects of university study. Instead of law and theology they would emphasize literature, more particularly classical literature. This would necessitate the study of the Greek language, and Latin would be viewed as the gateway to the treasures of the ancient literature and not, as in the middle ages, as an aid to theological study. The plans of the reformers, who called themselves "humanists," met with violent opposition from the friends of the "old learning." If the classics and the other human studies were to take the place of theology, there would soon be a class of educated men who were not churchmen, and the church would lose its monopoly of education. The king would no longer be compelled to choose his chief ministers from among the clergy, and the church would lose much of its influence in the state. The fears of the theologians were well founded: since the time of Wolsey the chief offices of the state have been filled by laymen. Cardinal Wolsey was to some extent in sympathy with the humanists and had great plans looking toward larger and better facilities for teaching and study. How far he was willing to go in this matter cannot be known, for very soon English interest was drawn to a new field, the German revolt against papal authority.

Wolsey and

the new learning."

204. The Eve of the Reformation.1 Various causes had

Dissatisfac

tion with the church.

combined to weaken the wonderful strength of the medieval church. The constant interference of the pope and the bishops in the affairs of state came to be resented by the governing classes, especially after 1 Review secs. 55, 61, 70-71, 86, 100-102, 126, 147-148, 154.