Valla leaves it, and makes Theodorus, the high-priest at Dodona, ask Jupiter why he had not given another will to Tarquin? Jupiter sends the priest to Athens, to consult Minerva, who shows him the palace of the Fates, in which there were representations of all possible worlds, each containing a Sextus Tarquinius, with a different will. In the last and best of these worlds, the high-priest sees Sextus, such as he is, with his existing will and propensities. Minerva is made to say: "You see, it was not my father that made Sextus wicked. He was wicked from all eternity, and he was so voluntarily. Jupiter has only bestowed on him that existence which he could not refuse him in the best of all possible worlds. He only transferred him from the region of possible to that of actual beings. But what great events does the crime of Sextus draw after it-the liberty of Rome-a government fertile in civil and military virtues-an empire destined to conquer and civilise the earth." Theodorus returns thanks to Minerva, and acknowledges the justice of Jupiter. This is truly Leibnitzian: but, ingenious as it may be, we suppose that our readers will think it far enough from being a special proof that the present is the "best of all possible worlds." We may add, here, that our author's avowed theory of moral necessity appears to have been essentially that subsequently maintained by the great American metaphysician and divine, President Edwards. Religion, no doubt, compels the conclusion, that whatever the Supreme Being does or permits, is done or permitted for the wisest possible ends. This is probably the full extent of optimism that it is given to man to realise; and it satisfies devotion. But Leibnitz went further, and evidently regarded his "Theodicæa" as claiming to be a more specific solution of the origin of evil. We wish we could go more fully into his reasonings; but we should not, by so doing, throw any further light on the subject. The main idea is, that this must be the best possible constitution of the moral as well as physical universe, because God, as the perfect Being, could only have chosen such a world. Whatever general sense, we repeat, this statement is capable of, the difficulty consists in its application, in detail, to the phenomena and aspects of evil; nor could the subject even be entertained at all, without theological discussions hardly suited to our pages. After all, our author proves that evil in the universe is a good, only by the fact of its existence. As to any independent argument, this great genius has failed, like all others who have attempted the question; for his solution amounts, in reality, to a petitio principii. It offers no satisfactory answer to the many questions which might be asked as to a possible universe viewed in connexion with a power, a wisdom, and a benevolence to which everything must be regarded as possible, but a logical contradiction. There can be no doubt that, with all his genius, Leibnitz was eminently deficient, as compared with Bacon, Newton, or Locke, in that practical, inductive (we had almost said English) habit of mind, which some branches of truth especially demand. He has even been accused of extreme credulity. He tells us of a dog which he had heard speak several French words; among others, thé, caffé, chocolat, and assemblée.* Dugald Stewart thinks that the dog's master imposed on Leibnitz by means of ventriloquism. One thing is certain-that his genius enabled him easily to frame theories; and, when once enamoured of them, he no less easily could find in them harmonies with the principle of contradiction, or the sufficient reason, or some other favourite axiom; and he was then ready to maintain them with a zeal and a profusion of learning and argument worthy of the most renowned leaders of the middle ages. However unfinished many of his projects were, he seems never to have abandoned the expectation of accomplishing them. This remark applies to his vast scheme of a universal language, to his calculating machine, and a variety of dynamical inventions. Bailly says of him: "As daring as Descartes, as subtile as Bayle, perhaps less profound than Newton, and less cautious than Locke, but alone universal among all these great men, Leibnitz appears to have embraced the domain of reason in all its extent, and to have contributed the most to diffuse that philosophical spirit which constitutes the glory of the present age."t We close with a passage not less appropriate, from Miéville. The allusion is to the monument of Leibnitz, at Hanover, inscribed with the words Ossa Leibnitzii: "Approach this tomb, and contemplate the man whom it contains. Observe the works deposited with him-his writings on theology and metaphysics, his letters on toleration, his profound researches on international law, the mass of his physical and mathematical solutions, and a variety of other intricate disquisitions, which combined to give him the character of the most general scholar of his age. He had the honour of sharing the invention of the Differential Calculus with the immortal Newton. An historian, a civilian, a metaphysician, and a poet, Leibnitz may be said to have embraced everything. The treasures of ancient learning were his, and he had the ambition to attempt a knowledge of the most abstruse subjects. He was thus led into bold speculations, from the pursuit of which he was sometimes recalled by the * Vid. "Rapport de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, à Paris," 1706. + "Eloge de Leibnitz." admonitory lessons of history, while, at other times, he ventured beyond his powers, and allowed the guiding-thread to escape from his hold, but proceeded, unconscious of his loss, and bewildered himself in the illusions of system. He then no longer argued an ardent imagination created for him an assemblage of fantastic beings; dazzling hypotheses deceived his reason; and when he hoped to succeed in laying open one labyrinth, he was entangled in another.": ART. III.-NOTES OF A VISIT TO THE PUBLIC LUNATIC ASYLUMS OF SCOTLAND. BY JOHN WEBSTER, M. D., F.R.S., AND F.R.C.P., (Concluded from page 202.) ROYAL ASYLUM OF ABERDEEN. THE remaining establishment to which I propose directing attention, is that of Aberdeen,-the oldest Asylum in Scotland, with the exception of Montrose. Having been founded originally in 1800, upwards of half a century has elapsed, during which many benefits have been conferred upon afflicted lunatics belonging to the northern counties: since it was then, as now, the only large institution of the kind within these districts. The Asylum is situated in the immediate vicinity of Aberdeen, towards the north-west: where it occupies a pleasant, open, and airy position. The site lies somewhat low, with moderately elevated ground in the rear; nevertheless, it is considered salubrious. Having gradually increased from an hospital intended originally for about 50 patients, to an average now of about 350, the present structure displays correctly, in stone and lime, the progressive advances of the idea entertained by most persons regarding a receptacle for lunatics during the past half-century; and, as such, or historically, it amply merits examination by psychological antiquarians. Various courtyards are attached,-fourteen in number,- ten of which being large, they supply ample means for classification. There are, besides, smaller courts for seclusion; so that, when it becomes necessary to separate any patient from other inmates, this can be accomplished out-doors, and in the open air, instead of placing the lunatic in a dark, confined, and often ill-ventilated, objectionable apartment, which I have sometimes noticed elsewhere: of course, the above proceeding becoming only advisable during suitable weather. The absence of long noisy galleries for day occupations at this Asylum, and the various suites of "Tombeaux du dix-huitième Siècle." sitting-rooms, likewise merit approval; the only galleries used at present being bed-room passages, or corridors, which are never occupied during daytime, but constitute merely chambers of communication. It should further be mentioned that, the second-floor of this institution is solely appropriated for sleeprooms, or private apartments: whilst there is no third story, unless in a very small division of the building. Again, noisy and dirty patients sleep in those parts of the Asylum which are single-storied, but not sunken, or lower than neighbouring constructions. Some disadvantages should, however, be noticed in the oldest portion of the structure, which is built on a plan not properly admitting of extension; and whereby the kitchen, for instance, seems to have been stuck upon, rather than developed from, the original centre. The dormitories in some parts, also, are not admissible of being always conveniently classified, through proximity to the day-rooms occupied by that particular section of patients, to which these apartments are specially attached. Hence, inconvenience occasionally occurs when the inmates are retiring to bed; whilst this arrangement tends, likewise, to separate the attendants' sleeping-rooms from those of their patients. Besides such minor defects, I might add that, the earlier additions made to the building do not appear to have been conceived with much prospective sagacity. They seem badly placed, have an inferior appearance, and are on a lower level than the main structure: whereby, these succursals have formed rather an obstacle to, instead of an advancing step towards, subsequent improvements. Having been now so long in operation-since the Asylum was first opened-as also from the ordinary effects of time and constant use, a censorious critic might say, there is rather a want of smartness in some portion of the house furnishings, which looked as if the worse of wear, and would be improved by modernizing. However, several appendages are really of a superior description; and various extensive alterations, with improvements, being now in active progress, very soon the institution will possess additional accommodation for fifty more patients. A new chapel has likewise been recently finished. Farther, the bathing apparatus is excellent, and much superior to similar appliances I have sometimes observed elsewhere. The separate sleeping-rooms are numerous, and by no means so large as the dormitories usually met with in other places: six to eight beds being frequent, but never more than eighteen occupying one apartment; whereas, in some similar apartments previously visited, twenty-four and twenty-six beds seemed not uncommon. All the sleeping-rooms for patients are upstairs: the groundfloor being, as already stated, appropriated solely as work-rooms, apartments for meals, or recreation. The whole appeared clean and well arranged. Hyper-critics might doubtless object to such dormitories upstairs being in any way intersected by a narrow passage running along the middle of a wing, or main building: the rooms for sleeping being on each side. Ventilation must certainly then be rather difficult to effect in apartments so arranged, whilst noise or disturbance may be thus more readily produced. Still, to my apprehension, this arrangement did not appear a really serious defect; and seeing much more accommodation was thereby obtained,-always an important object in reference to paupers, or those who pay a moderate sum for accommodation, the plan had various advantages. -- Although not altogether a professional question, some allusion to the financial condition of this Asylum deserves, at least, a passing remark: the facts being somewhat different from statements occasionally made in other quarters. Notwithstanding the low rates at which lunatics of the pauper class are kept in the Aberdeen institution,-viz., 15l. per annum, for every charge-board, lodging, clothing, and bedding, there usually appears a balance at the end of each year. For example; upon an income of 5564l. 28. 4d. during 1854, the treasurer reported that 305l. 148. 9d. remained above the expenditure. Hence, this Asylum is self-supporting; whilst, it should be further remembered, such results occur without the assistance of annual subscriptions, donations from public bodies, or any appeal whatever to general charity, being thus quite different from what often occurs in England. One important feature in the general arrangements of this establishment deserves special approval,-namely, the invariable rule which prevails throughout, of leaving the doors of every dayroom, communicating with its appropriate airing-court or flowergarden, always open during day-time. Consequently, inmates have always free access to the one or other, as their feelings or wishes may incline. In this way, no appearance prevails of confinement; and patients may sit in the room reading, can walk about in the open court, or quietly repose in the shade, as best pleases each individual. There is no opening of door-locks, at particular times, to allow occupants to walk out, as if at drill: but obliged soon afterwards to retrace their steps, like some squad of prisoners. Nothing of the kind here exists; and I must repeat, this system of real non-interference seemed both beneficial and highly commendable. Of course, attendants were always present: whilst the judicious classification of patients became essential, in order to carry out this excellent scheme successfully. Somewhat similar arrangements are pursued in several French asylums I have visited: and partially, also, in |