sampling program of Pacific nodules shows that they contain 8.2% to 41.1% manganese, 0.01% to 2.3% cobalt, 0.1% to 2.0% nickel, and 0.03% to 1.6% copper. Although the Atlantic nodules contain less manganese, cobalt, and copper they are usually less variable in composition than Pacific nodules averaging about 18% manganese, 0.4% cobalt, 0.6% nickel, and 0.4% copper. Nodules. from the Indian Ocean exhibit some similarity in composition to those from the Pacific, but these nodules again show smaller average assays of manganese, cobalt, nickel, and copper, respectively 12% to 29%, 0.07% to 1.0%, 0.2% to 2.0%, and 0.03% to 1.3%.* Manganese nodules are a particularly significant mineral resource for the United States. The commercially attractive minerals they contain-manganese, cobalt, nickel, and copper-are of prime importance to the functioning of our highly developed economy. Furthermore, there is either no, or else totally inadequate, domestic production of manganese, cobalt, and nickel. In spite of the fact that we are the world's largest producer of copper, we are normally a net importer of copper, and the quality of our domestic copper ore reserves is diminishing.5 Moreover, the metals manganese, cobalt, and nickel are imported mainly from developing countries that are combining among themselves to manipulate prices upward by controlling production and distribution. Ocean mining of manganese nodules for the commercially attractive metals, while not intending to replace the established terrestrial sources of supply, can provide a significant alternate source of metals. This would allow the consuming nations to bargain with exporting countries from an improved competitive position. DATA ON THE COMMERCIALLY ATTRACTIVE NODULE CONSTITUENTS OF Manganese Manganese, a metal rarely seen in elemental form, is an essential material in the economical production and manufacture of steel and cast iron. The demand for this application far exceeds the total for all other end uses. In fact, more than 90% of the consumption in the United States is by the steel industry, and no substitute has yet been found despite much effort. Specifically, manganese is used as a scavenger in molten steel removing sulfur and oxygen as part of the slag (sulfur and oxygen as impurities make steel brittle). Used as an alloy, manganese makes steel more resistant to shock or abrasion. The United States is now completely dependent upon foreign sources for manganese, since the last domestic mine closed in 1970.7 Small quantities of lead, zinc, copper, gold, and silver had been recovered in the processing of some of our domestic ores, but recoveries were small and processing for these metals was generally unprofitable. Consequently, most terrestrial world manganese source mines are exploited solely for that metal. Uses s 8 1. Construction Products, Home and Industry.-This general use category includes the basic elements of industrial plants: commercial, residential and public buildings: bridges, dams, highways, and similar structures. It also includes contractors' products such as plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning equipment. 2. Transportation, Machinery, and Equipment for Industry and Agriculture. -These categories include most of the manganese-alloy steels which may contain upwards of 10 to 14% manganese. Current requirements take in agriculture, U.N. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Mineral Resources of the Sea, p. 13, 14, 15. 5 Oceanography Miscellaneous. Hearings before the House Subcommittee on Oceanography of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries on "Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources", p. 99. 6 Ibid., p. 21. United States Geological Survey. United States Mineral Resources. Donald A. Brobst and Walden P. Pratt, editors. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1973. (Geological Survey Professional Paper 820) p. 385. 8 United States Bureau of Mines. Mineral Facts and Problems. 1970. Washington: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1970. (Bureau of Mines Bulletin 650) p. 322-323, 327-329. mining, electrical machinery, industrial machines, and tools; transportation takes in alloy, stainless and heat-resisting steels required for producing automobiles, railroad coaches and equipment, and ships. 3. Containers, Home Appliances and Furniture, Pipes, Tubing, and Equipment. Most of the manganese consumed for these applications is used as a purifying agent in the production of carbon steels from which these products are made. 4. Chemicals and Glass Products.-Demand for manganese entails its use as a chemical raw material for the production of a wide variety of both organic and inorganic chemical compounds that are widely used as oxidizers, catalysts and chemical intermediates. 5. Dry-Cell Batteries.-Manganese is utilized in dry-cell batteries for use in toys, transistor radios, and other types of portable electronic equipment. 6. Other Uses.-The bulk of this manganese will be consumed in producing the iron and steel needed for miscellaneous items such as ordnance materials, bolts, nuts, rivets, screws, forgings, and other steel mill products. Supply Known minable reserves and known resources of manganese are very large in relation to world consumption but are very irregularly distributed throughout the world. The United States has virtually no domestic reserves and its known resources are both very low grade and refractory from an economical standpoint. Thus, the United States is expected to remain dependent upon other countries for essentially all manganese requirements. In recent years Zaire and Gabon have supplied about 40% of the U.S. manganese requirement and India, Brazil, and the Republic of South Africa have supplied most of the remainder. Australia, India, Brazil, and the Republic of South Africa appear to be the most certain sources of future supply. Secondary manganese operations enter the steel making industry as a component of open hearth slags fed to pig iron blast furnaces, and metal scrap fed to open hearth furnaces. Open hearth slags represent a large potential source of secondary manganese at present, and recovery from this source continues to be investigated. Currently, however, little of this manganese is recovered in the finished ingot as the action of the steel making process inherently removes part of the manganese discarding it in the waste slags.10 Problems With present steelmaking technology. a continuing supply of high-grade manganese is a virtual necessity. The dependence of the United States upon foreign countries for manganese presents no foreseeable problems, but only as long as present trade relations are not disrupted. A promising mode of relieving our dependence on foreign sources rests with perfection of techniques of effectively exploiting sea-floor nodules. However, legal impediments to large-scale investment in subsea mining must first be dissolved." Cobalt Cobalt is a relatively expensive metal that has come to the forefront in the 20th Century as one of the little known elements that contribute greatly to "sophisticated" industrialization. It is one of the refractory metals of the space age, it is widely used in electronic devices, and it is an intrinsic constituent of certain paints and ceramics. Cobalt is vital to the proper functioning of the U.S. industrial economy because it is essential in machine tools, carbides, and high-strength permanent magnets. The United States relies principally on imports for its supply of primary cobalt since domestic production is not a significant element in primary supply. Essentially all cobalt produced is a byproduct of copper, nickel, silver, iron, and zinc refining. Copper mining is the principal source of cobalt at present, but nickel mining may replace it as more nickel-bearing laterite deposits are exploited. In many instances, cobalt is recovered because it is an impurity that must be separated from other metals.12 U.S. Geological Survey. United States Mineral Resources, p. 385. Uses 18 1. Aircraft Engines and Parts.-Cobalt is used in aircraft engines in superalloys for parts that are subjected to stress, at high temperatures, wear and corrosion. Since these superalloys can withstand such severe stresses and temperatures up to 1600° F, they are especially suited for jet engine and spacecraft components. 2. Electrical Equipment and Supplies.-Essentially most cobalt used in electrical equipment is in permanent magnets. Experimentally, 20 to 90 percent cobalt with platinum has produced superior permanent magnets, but the cost of the alloy has prohibited its general use. Cobalt is also used with iron and nickel to form glass-to-metal seals in electronic equipment, and to make lowexpansion steels that are used in electronic components and accessories, e.g. small electric motors, radio, T.V. and communication equipment. 3. Machine Tools.-Cobalt is used in machine tools as a metal matrix that binds tungsten, tantalum, titanium and vanadium carbides together to form cutting tools and masonry saw teeth. Cobalt is also an important ingredient of high-speed steels for machining iron, steel, and the nonferrous metals, e.g. aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, tin, silver, and gold. 4. Construction and Related Machines.-Hard-facing alloys containing 10 to 65 percent cobalt are used in construction equipment to resist abrasion, heat, impact, and corrosion. Excavating equipment such as power-shovel dipper teeth and plowshares faced with this type of alloy are good examples. 5. Paint and Allied Products.-Cobalt oxides and salts are used in paint and allied products for pigments, driers, dyes, decolorizers, and oxidizers. 6. Miscellaneous Chemical Products.-Cobalt is used as a catalyst in processes to make miscellaneous chemical products. 7. Other Uses.-Cobalt is also used as an additive to soils where its presence has proved necessary to produce satisfactory crops for animal nutrition. The isotope, cobalt 60, is a source of gamma radiation and is used as such for medical treatment, and in physical, chemical, and biological research. Supply The history of cobalt production clearly indicates that large ore deposits containing some small amounts of cobalt are widespread in the world, but virtually none are workable for cobalt content alone. The current utilization of the world's cobalt is primarily a matter of economics and technology, and not a question of geologic availability." Domestic supply is a small element in the total, and known domestic resources that might be exploited at any practical increase in price are not large enough to be a significant factor in supply. Therefore, the United States will continue to depend on foreign countries for its cobalt. Apparently, there will be an adequate supply of cobalt from mines in Canada, Morocco, and Zaire to provide the United States with most of the cobalt it needs as long as nickel and copper production at these mines continues at current rates. Secondary cobalt would become a significant element of supply if the demand were to exceed the primary supply readily available from the traditional terrestrial mine sources. Approximately half the quantity of cobalt used in airplane engines and parts is potential secondary supply because of high fabricating loss and short service life.15 Problems The principal cobalt problem of the United States is that it is dependent on mines in Africa for its supply. Inefficient cobalt extractive and refining processes are a problem. Especially aggravating is the difficulty of separating nickel from cobalt and the inefficiency of currently known processes for doing so.1o 16 Nickel Nickel is outstanding among the metallic elements other than copper and iron which have contributed to the advance of civilization through the ages. Man 13 Ibid., pp. 268-269. 14 T.S. Geological Survey. United States Mineral Resources, p. 143. 15 U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Facts and Problems, 1970, p. 273. 18 Ibid., p. 274. first used nickel in meteorites from space to make superior weapons, and it was an intrinsic part of Apollo II that first took man to the moon. Its greatest value is in alloys with other elements where it adds strength and resistance to corrosion over a wide range of temperatures. Nickel-alloy steels are vital in modern weapons of war, and nickel-base superalloys provide strength in the hightemperature jets that propel rockets into space. The United States relies on imports for most of its nickel, and indications are that within 15 years, by 1985, essentially all except secondary nickel will come from foreign countries. Secondary metal contributes about 15% of supply.” Some nickel is produced as a coproduct of copper mined in a number of localities, and in a few instances as a coproduct of cobalt, silver, and platinum. However, most of the free world requirement of nearly one billion pounds of nickel per year is supplied from deposits of nickel ores, mostly in Canada and New Caledonia (nickel sulfides and nickel laterites respectively).18 Uses 19 1. Chemicals and Allied Products, and Petroleum Refining and Allied Products.-Manufacturers of chemicals and allied products and petroleum refiners, are the principal end users of nickel. Most of the nickel they use is in the form of metal alloys applied in manufacturing equipment parts that are exposed to corrosive chemicals. Stainless, alloy, and heat-resisting steels that contain upward of 8% nickel are used in parts subject to normal corrosion. wrought and cast nickel alloys containing 95 to 99% nickel are used to handle strong caustics, and copper-base nickel alloys are used to resist saline corrosion. 2. Fabricated Metal Products.-Nickel is used in a wide variety of metal products ranging from cutlery, handtools, and general hardware to plate and sheet metal boilers, kettles, and duct work. In most cases, the nickel is in stainless and alloy steels or in nickel alloys that provide strength and corrosion resistance. 3. Aircraft and Parts.-Superalloys that resist stress and corrosion at high temperatures account for most of the nickel in aircraft. Generally, the superalloys are alloys exhibiting high strength characteristics at 1800° F and above. Almost all contain some nickel, and the majority are nickel based. In aircraft, they are used principally in gas turbines, turbo superchargers, and jet engines. Substantial quantities of nickel-bearing stainless steel and alloy steel are used in airframes, and all electroplated parts of aircraft contain nickel. 4. Motor Vehicles and Equipment.-Most of the nickel in motor vehicles is in electroplating in the trim of the lower parts of autos. However, some of the larger buses, vans, and tank trucks have nickel-bearing stainless steel bodies. 5. Electrical Machinery, Equipment, and Supplies.-Resistance alloys containing up to 80% nickel account for most of the nickel in electrical equipment. Nickel-bearing glass-to-metal seals and transistors account for the remainder. 6. Household Appliances.-Nickel is used in household appliances, principally in stainless steel and in electroplating. Nickel-base alloys are also used in food processing equipment. 7. Machinery (except electrical).—Cast and wrought nickel-bearing alloy steels are widely used in machinery to provide strength. The nickel-base alloys are used to impart corrosion resistance. 8. General Building Contractors.-Most nickel used in construction is in stainless steel or wrought and cast alloy steels. Stainless steels provide corrosion resistance and strength to a wide variety of elements in private and industrial buildings. These alloys exhibit a high strength-to-weight ratio. 9. Ship and Boat Building and Repairing.-Nickel alloys, copper-nickel, and bronzes are used in ships and boats in parts exposed to salt water, 10. Other Uses.-Nickel and some of its salts are used as catalysts: nickel is also used in batteries and fuel cells with the elements iron and cadmium, in carbides and hard facing materials, and in ceramics to form a bond between enamel and iron. 17 U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Facts and Problems, 1970, p. 347. 18 U.S. Geological Survey. United States Mineral Resources, p. 437. Nickel sulfide = a mineral compound characterized by linkage of sulfur with nickel. Nickel laterite = a nickel ore developed in tropical and subtropical regions of typically good drainage. 19 U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Facts and Problems, 1970, pp. 353-354. Supply The United States obtains essentially all of its foreign nickel from Canada and New Caledonia, but some of it comes by way of refineries in England, Norway, and France. The U.S. does mine nickel deposits at an operating mine and smelter at Riddle, Oregon. There are small pockets of nickeliferous ore in Oregon, California, and Washington, but their size and geographic position preclude profitable mining and they should be considered only potential reserves. In addition, domestic copper refineries recover about 1,000 short tons of nickel annually from refining primary copper. Secondary metal, however, is a significant source of nickel to the United States, and may be the source of a larger percentage of total supply in the future. Secondary nickel is more or less rigidly oriented to the first use for which it was intended. Thus, not too much of a problem is encountered when the secondary is prompt industrial scrap. When scrap is from outmoded or obsolete equipment it must be carefully sorted to become part of U.S. supply.20 Problems Probably the most critical problem dealing with nickel supply and its usage is recovering it from products that have served their usefulness. This problem is compounded as more nickel is used to make materials that are refractory at increasingly higher temperatures. Even though some of the nickel ores are processed to recover nickel profitably, the overall yield is low, the processing time is long, and the reagents are corrosive and expensive. Separating nickel and cobalt is difficult and relatively complicated. Again, costs are high. Large complex mining, processing, and refining plants make it extremely difficult to adjust the supply of nickel to meet the demand. It is almost impossible to increase output in a short time, and if the plants are operated at below their normal capacity costs are high." Copper Copper has been a contributer to mankind's progress from the Stone Age to the Space Age. The use of copper and its alloys is universal. They are practically synonymous with all things electrical and have myriad uses in electrical equipment and supplies, construction, transportation, communications, appliances, utensils, and jewelry. The United States has been the largest copper-producing Nation in the world' since 1883, and in 1968 produced 19-20% of the total world mine production. Domestically, however, we are experiencing a crisis in copper supply due to a number of factors including increased U.S. and world consumption, and by other developments throughout the world which have served to reduce copper production. About 98% of the U.S. mine production of copper is recovered from ores mined primarily for their copper content with the remainder being recovered from complex metal ores. In addition to copper, important quantities of precious metals (gold, silver, and the platinum-group metals) are recovered as byproducts. A large part of the copper output in Canada comes from ores that are mined principally for nickel, and a major part of world cobalt production is recovered in processing copper ores from Zaire.22 Uses 23 1. Electrical Equipment and Supplies.-This category includes electrical apparatus (motors, generators, dynamotors, and industrial controls); electricity transmission lines, distribution equipment, lighting and wiring equipment; communications, communications satellites, telephone and telegraph wire and cable, components in radio and T.V., and sending and receiving equipment ; household appliances (electric knives, toasters, hair dryers). 20 .S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Facts and Problems, 1970, p. 348. 21 Ibid., p. 359, 360. 22 U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Facts and Problems, 1970, p. 535, 543. 23 Ibid., p. 545, and pp. 549–550. |