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political career. He was driven from his native Schleswig in 1848 for joining in the efforts of the young patriots to free the duchy from Denmark; he was expelled from the chair of Roman Law at the University of Leipzig in 1850 and banished from Saxony for championing Prussia, through whom he hoped to see the attainment of German unity; and, as a member of the Prussian Diet from 1873 to 1882, he incurred the bitter hostility of Bismarck for opposing the latter's domestic policy, and was prosecuted for libel for characterizing that policy as a "swindle." Though finally acquitted by the superior court, this incident caused his retirement from active political life.

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The work by which Mommsen is most widely known is his History of Rome," in three volumes, published in 1854-1856. The original plan of the author was to cover the whole field from the foundation of the city to the German invasions, in five volumes. Of these, the first three, bringing the story down to the battle of Thapsus, appeared in rapid succession, but the fourth, covering the dynastic history of the empire, was never written, owing partly to the fact that the period was already treated in easily accessible works and partly to his distaste for the intrigues and bloodshed of the early empire. In 1885, however, appeared the fifth volume on a somewhat different plan, covering the imperial administration of the provinces from Caesar to Diocletian. From the student's point of view this is more important than the earlier portion of the work, as it surveys a practically untrodden field. Mommsen's work as editor of the great "Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum" had put into his hands a wealth of information derived from inscriptions in every part of the empire, and enabled him to set forth for the first time the true significance and value to the world's progress of the four hundred years of imperial administration in Mediterranean lands. But this fifth volume never attained the popularity of the three earlier ones. It dealt with the dry facts of organization and government, and lacked the dramatic qualities and brilliant characterizations which have made the history of the republican period one of the literary masterpieces of the German language.

The first three volumes of the "History of Rome" were written in the midst of the German struggle for unity, and show throughout the author's political convictions and philosophy. This is especially true of that portion which deals with the last century of the republic. Here his dislike of a narrow aristocracy such as

had for so long controlled the destinies of the German states, and his admiration of the strong arm which is capable of guiding the blind efforts of the common people, led him to form estimates of the leading statesmen of Rome which have provoked the sharpest criticism. His condemnation of Cicero as a man of words rather than deeds, of Pompeius as a mere soldier, and of Cato as a tactless visionary, has perhaps not excited so much opposition as his extreme laudation of Caesar and his undisguised hero-worship for a man who accomplished things without hesitating as to the means employed. But a readiness to form opinions as to character and to judge men by a clearly defined standard does not make history less interesting to read, nor indeed less valuable to the reader, provided that the author's bias is kept constantly in mind.

The popularity and importance of the "History of Rome" is attested by the fact that by 1875 the work had run through six German editions and had been translated into Italian, English, French, Russian, Polish, and Spanish. The English version in four volumes was prepared in 1862 by the Rev. W. P. Dickson, D.D., and passed into a fourth edition in 1894. The work also appeared in English in 1889, condensed into one volume by C. Bryans and F. J. Hendy, and it is this abridgment which now appears with such changes as were necessary in order to bring it within the required compass for the series in which it is published. The alterations in Bryans and Hendy's text consist mainly in the omission of details of military campaigns and the condensation of certain paragraphs of less interest to the general reader. Mommsen's views as expressed in his original work remain unaltered. On many points they have been strongly controverted by other scholars, but, where no new evidence has come to light since he wrote, Mommsen's opinions are still regarded with the greatest respect. Conflicting interpretations and views may be found in many of the works indicated in the bibliography appended to this volume. In only one important field have Mommsen's conclusions lost all weight owing to an untenable method pursued by him, viz., in regard to the primitive races of Italy. It is now generally agreed that the ethnologists and not the philologists have the last word to speak concerning the relationships of prehistoric peoples, and therefore this part of the history has ceased to be of much value.

Arthur C. Stowland.

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

CONTENTS

PART I

LATIN SETTLEMENT AND CONQUEST OF ITALY

753-268 B. C.

CHAPTER

I. ITALY

753 B. C.

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II. LATIN SETTLEMENTS AND ORIGIN OF ROME.
III. THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND THE REFORMS OF SER-
VIUS TULLIUS

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IV. ROME AND THE OTHER ITALIAN POWERS DURING THE
REGAL PERIOD. 753-509 B. C.

509-508 B. C.

V. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC.
VI. THE TRIBUNATE OF THE PLEBS AND THE DECEMVIRATE.

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495-449 B. C.
VII. STRIFE OF PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. 445-265 B. C.
VIII. FALL OF ETRUSCAN POWER AND THE COMING OF THE

CELTS. 500-343 B. C.

PAGE
3

7

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IX. ADVANCE OF ROME TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 500-

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X. WAR WITH PYRRHUS-UNION WITH ITALY. 280-268

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XIII. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. 218-202 B. C.

XIV. A REVIEW OF THE WEST AND EAST. 201-194 B. C.
XV. WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS AND THE FINAL CONQUEST OF

THE EAST. 192-168 B. C.

XVI. THE GOVERNMENT AND THE GOVERNED

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XVIII. THE REFORMS OF THE GRACCHI.
XIX. THE RULE OF THE RESTORATION.
XX. MARIUS AS REVOLUTIONIST AND DRUSUS AS REFORMER.

133-121 B. C.
121-IOI B. C. .

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. 185

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. 205

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XXI. THE REVOLT OF ALL ITALY. 91-87 B. C.

XXII. THE MITHRADATIC WAR. 88-84 B. C.

XXIII. THE DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION AND ITS OVERTHROW

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242

XXV. ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE EMPIRE DURING THE
REVOLUTION PERIOD. 133-78 B. C.

PART IV

FALL OF THE REPUBLIC AND ESTABLISHING OF
THE MONARCHY. 78-44 B. C.

XXVI. THE RULE OF THE SULLAN RESTORATION. 78-70 B. C. 253
XXVII. FALL OF THE OLIGARCHY-RULE OF POMPEIUS. 70-

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XXVIII. PARTY STRUGGLES IN ROME-POMPEIUS, CAESAR AND
CRASSUS. 65-58 B. C.

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XXIX. CAESAR IN GAUL. 58-51 B. C.

XXX. THE JOINT RULE OF POMPEIUS AND CAESAR. 57-52

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XXXII. THE CIVIL WAR. 49-46 B. C.

XXXIII. THE OLD REPUBLIC AND THE NEW MONARCHY.

44 B. C..

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

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265

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· 311

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322

334

362

397

• 403

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